Hello Father Monday Edition 25 February 2013 CONCLAVE

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con·clave noun \'kän-?klav\

Definition of CONCLAVE

1
: a private meeting or secret assembly; especially : a meeting of Roman Catholic cardinals secluded continuously while choosing a pope
2
: a gathering of a group or association
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Origin of CONCLAVE

Middle English, from Middle French or Medieval Latin; Middle French, from Medieval Latin, from Latin, room that can be locked up, from com- + clavis key — more at clavicle
First Known Use: 1524
Rhymes with CONCLAVE

airwave, behave, brain wave, cold wave, concave, deprave, dissave, drawshave, enclave, engrave, enslave, exclave, ground wave, heat wave, ...
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conclave noun    (Concise Encyclopedia)
In the Roman Catholic church, the assembly of cardinals gathered to elect a new pope and the system of strict seclusion to which they submit. From 1059 the election became the responsibility of the cardinals. When, after the death of Clement IV (1268), the cardinals dithered for more than two years, the local magistrate locked them in the episcopal palace and fed them only bread and water until they elected Gregory X. The system of meeting in closed conclave was codified in 1904 by Pius X. Voting is by secret ballot; one ballot is held on the first afternoon of the conclave and four on each subsequent day, two in the morning and two in the afternoon, until a new pope is chosen. In 1996 John Paul II declared that, after 30 ballots, the traditional requirement of a two-thirds majority plus one for the election of a pope could be superseded, at the discretion of the cardinals, by election by a simple majority. Ballots are burned in a stove after each vote, and the smoke produced by their burning, which issues from a special pipe through a window, indicates to the crowd assembled in St. Peter's Square whether a new pope has been elected: if there is a new pope, the smoke will be white; if no majority has yet been reached, the smoke will be black. In addition, bells will be rung to confirm the signal. Additives are mixed with the ballots to ensure the proper colour of the smoke.

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Conclave

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[NOTE: For current procedures regarding the conclave, see Pope John Paul II's 1996 Apostolic Constitution UNIVERSI DOMINICI GREGIS. See also PAPAL ELECTIONS and ELECTION OF THE POPES.]

(Latin cum, with, and clavis, key; a place that may be securely closed)

The closed room or hall specially set aside and prepared for the cardinals when electing a pope; also the assembly of the cardinals for the canonical execution of this purpose. In its present form the conclave dates from the end of the thirteenth century. Earlier methods of filling the See of Peter are treated in the article PAPAL ELECTIONS. In this article will be considered: (I) the history of the actual method of papal election; (II) the ceremonial itself.

History of the conclave

In 1271 the election that ended with the choice of Gregory X at Viterbo had lasted over two years and nine months when the local authorities, weary of the delay, shut up the cardinals within narrow limits and thus hastened the desired election (Raynald, Ann. Eccl., ad ad. 1271). The new pope endeavoured to obviate for the future such scandalous delay by the law of the conclave, which, almost in spite of the cardinals, he promulgated at the fifth session of the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 (Hefele, Hist. des Conciles, IX, 29). It is the first occasion on which we meet with the word conclave in connection with papal elections. (For its use in English literature see Murray's "Oxford Dictionary", s.v., and for its medieval use Du Cange, Glossar. med. et infimæ Latinitatis, s.v.) The provisions of his Constitution "Ubi Periculum" were stringent. When a pope died, the cardinals with him were to wait ten days for their absent brethren. Then, each with a single servant, lay or cleric, they were to assemble in the palace where the pope was at his death, or, if that were impossible, the nearest city not under interdict, in the bishop's house or some other suitable place. All were to assemble in one room (conclave), without partition or hanging, and live in common. This room and another retired chamber, to which they might go freely, were to be so closed in that no one could go in or out unobserved, nor anyone from without speak secretly with any cardinal. And if anyone from without had aught to say, it must be on the business of the election and with the knowledge of all the cardinals present. No cardinal might send out any message, whether verbal or written, under pain of excommunication. There was to be a window through which food could be admitted. If after three days the cardinals did not arrive at a decision, they were to receive for the next five days only one dish at their noon and evening meals. If these five days elapsed without an election, only bread, wine, and water should be their fare. During the election they might receive nothing from the papal treasury, nor introduce any other business unless some urgent necessity arose imperilling the Church or its possessions. If any cardinal neglected to enter, or left the enclosure for any reason other than sickness, the election was to go on without him. But his health restored, he might re-enter the conclave and take up the business where he found it. The rulers of the city where the conclave was held should see to it that all the papal prescriptions concerning enclosure of the cardinals were observed. Those who disregarded the laws of the conclave or tampered with its liberty, besides incurring other punishments, were ipso facto excommunicated.
The stringency of these regulations at once aroused opposition; yet the first elections held in conclave proved that the principle was right. The first conclave lasted only a day and the next but seven days. Unfortunately there were three popes in the very year succeeding the death of Gregory X (1276). The second, Adrian V, did not live long enough to incorporate in an authoritative act his openly expressed opinion of the conclave. Pope John XX lived only long enough to suspend officially the "Ubi Periculum". Immediately the protracted elections recommenced. In the eighteen years intervening between the suspension of the law of the conclave in 1276 and its resumption in 1294 there were several vacancies of from six to nine months; that which preceded the election of Celestine V lasted two years and nine months. About the only notable act of the latter pope was to restore the conclave. Boniface VIII confirmed the action of his predecessor and ordered the "Ubi Periculum" of Gregory X to be incorporated in the canon law (c. 3, in VI°, I, 6), since which time all papal elections have taken place in conclave. Pope Gregory XI in 1378 empowered the cardinals (for that occasion only) to proceed to an election outside of conclave, but they did not do so. The Council of Constance (1417) modified the rules of the conclave to such an extent that the cardinals of the three "obediences" took part in it as well as six prelates from each of the five nations. This precedent (which however resulted happily in the election of the Roman, Martin V) is perhaps the reason why Julius II (1512), Paul III (1542), Pius IV (1561), and Pius IX (1870) provided that in case of their death during an ecumenical council the election of the new pope should be in the hands of the cardinals, not in those of the council. Pius IV by the Bull "In Eligendis" (1562) provided that the election might take place either in or out of the conclave, but this was revoked by Gregory XIII. This liberty of action is found again in the legislation (1798) of Pius VI (Quum nos superiore anno) which leaves it in the power of the cardinals to modify the rules of the conclave touching enclosure, etc. Again Pius IX by the Bull "In hac sublimi" (23 August, 1871) allowed a majority of the cardinals to dispense with the traditional enclosure. Other important documents of Pius IX dealing with the conclave are his Constitutions "Licet per Apostolicas Litteras" (8 September, 1874) and "Consulturi" (10 October, 1877), also his "Regolamento da osservarsi dal S. Collegio in occasione della vacanza dell'Apostolica Sede" (10 January, 1878).
As a matter of fact these precautions, taken in view of the danger of interference by secular governments, have so far been unnecessary, and elections of popes take place as they always did since the law of the conclave became finally effective. Many popes have legislated on this subject, either to confirm the actions of their predecessors or to define (or add to) previous legislation. Clement V decreed that the conclave must take place in the diocese in which the pope dies (Ne Romani, 1310) and also that all cardinals, whether excommunicated or interdicted, provided they were not deposed, should have the right to vote. Clement VI (1351) permitted a slight amelioration in the fare and in the strict practice of common life. In the sixteenth century Julius II (1505) by the Bull "Cum tam divino" declared invalid any simoniacal election of a pope. Following the example of Pope Symmachus (499), Paul IV, by the Bull "Cum Secundum" (1558), denounced and forbade all cabals and intrigues during the lifetime of a pope. The aforesaid Constitution of Pius IV "In Eligendis" (1562) is a codification and re-enactment of all the laws pertaining to the conclave since the time of Gregory X. In it he insists forcibly on the enclosure, which had come to be rather carelessly observed. The finally directive legislation on the conclave is that of Gregory XV. In his short reign (1621-1623) he published two Bulls, "Æterni Patris" (1621), and "Decet Romanum Pontificem" (1622), followed by a Cæremoniale for the papal election (Bullar. Luxemb., III, 444 sqq.). Every detail of the conclave is described in these documents. Subsequent legislation has either confirmed these measures, e.g. the "Romani Pontificis" of Urban VIII (1625), or regulated the expenditure of money on the papal obsequies, e.g. the Brief of Alexander VIII (1690), or determined their order, e.g. the "Chirografo" of Clement XII (1732). The more recent legislation of Pius VI, Pius VII, and Pius IX provides for all contingencies of interference by secular powers. Pius VI (who designated a Catholic country in which the majority of the cardinals happened to be) and Pius IX (who left the matter to the judgment of the Sacred College) allowed the widest liberty as to the place of the conclave.

Ceremonial of the conclave

Immediately on the death of a pope the cardinal camerlengo who, as representative of the Sacred College, assumes charge of the papal household, verifies by a judicial act the death of the pontiff. In the presence of the household he strikes the forehead of the dead pope three times with a silver mallet, calling him by his baptismal name. The fisherman's ring and the papal seals are then broken. A notary draws up the act which is the legal evidence of the pope's death. The obsequies last nine days. Meanwhile the cardinals have been notified of the impending election and those resident in Rome (in Curia) await their absent brethren, assisting in the meantime at the functions for the deceased pontiff. All cardinals, and they alone, have the right to vote in the conclave; they must, however, be legitimately appointed, have the use of reason, and be present in person, not through a procurator or by letter. This right is acknowledged even if they are subject to ecclesiastical censures (e.g. excommunication), or if the solemn ceremonies of their "creation" have yet to be performed. During the aforesaid nine days, and until the election of a successor, all cardinals appear with uncovered rochets, just as all have canopies over their seats at the conclave, to show that the supreme authority is in the hands of the whole College. The cardinal camerlengo is assisted by the heads of the three cardinalitial orders, known as the "Capita Ordinum" (cardinal-bishops, -priests, -deacons). There are frequent meetings, or "congregations", of these four cardinals to determine every detail both of the obsequies of the pope and of the preparations for the conclave. All matters of importance are referred to the general congregations, which since 1870 are held in the Vatican. The cardinal dean (always the Bishop of Ostia) presides over these congregations, in which the cardinals take rank and precedence from the date of their elevation to the purple. Formerly they had also to provide for the government of the Papal States and to repress frequent disorders during the interregnum. In the first of these congregations the various Constitutions which govern the conclave are read and the cardinals take an oath to observe them. Then, in the following days, the various officers of the conclave, the conclavists, confessors, and physicians, servants of various kinds, are examined or appointed by a special commission. Each cardinal has a right to take into the conclave a secretary and a servant, the secretary being usually an ecclesiastic. In case of illness a third conclavist may be allowed, with agreement of the general congregation. All are equally sworn to secrecy and also not to hinder the election. After the conclave certain honorary distinctions and pecuniary emoluments are awarded to the conclavists.

Meanwhile a conclave, formerly a large room, now a large part of the Vatican palace, including two or three floors, is walled off, and the space divided into apartments, each with three or four small rooms or cells, in each of which are a crucifix, a bed, a table and a few chairs. Access to the conclave is free through one door only, locked from without by the Marshal of the Conclave (formerly a member of the Savelli, since 1721 of the Chigi, family), and from within by the cardinal camerlengo. There are four openings provided for the passage of food and other necessaries, guarded from within and without, on the exterior by the authority of the marshal and major-domo, on the interior by the prelate assigned to this duty by the three cardinals mentioned above, representative of the three cardinalitial orders. Once the conclave begins the door is not again opened until the election is announced, except to admit a cardinal who is late in arriving. All communication with the outside is strictly forbidden under pain of loss of office and ipso facto excommunication. A cardinal may leave the conclave in case of sickness (certified under oath by a physician) and return; not so a conclavist. It may be noted at once, with Wernz, that a papal election held outside of a properly organized conclave is canonically null and void.

Within, the cardinals live with their conclavists in the cells. Formerly every cardinal had to provide his own food, which was carried in state by his men-in-waiting to one of the four openings nearest the cell of the prelate. Since 1878 the kitchen is a part of the conclave. Though all meals are taken in private they are served from a common quarter, but great care is taken to prevent written communication by this way. The cells of the cardinals are covered with cloth, purple if they are of the last pope's "creation", green if not. When they wish to be undisturbed they close the door of their cell, the frame-work of which is in the shape of a St. Andrew's cross. The conclave opens officially on the evening of the tenth day after the pope's decease, unless another day has been assigned. Every precaution is observed to exclude those who have no right within the enclosure, and also unnecessary communication with the outside. Papal legislation has long since forbidden the once customary "capitulations", or ante-election agreements binding on the new pope; it is also forbidden to cardinals to treat of the papal succession among themselves during the pope's lifetime; the pope may, however, treat of the matter with the cardinals. Absolutely necessary modifications of the conclave legislation, during the conclave itself, are temporary only. All true cardinals, as stated, may enter the conclave, but those only who have received deacon's orders have a right to vote, unless they have received a special indult from the late pope. Cardinals who have been preconized, but not yet elevated to the purple, are entitled by a decision of St. Pius V (1571) both to be present and to vote.

Including the cardinals, prelates, and conclavists, there are perhaps two hundred and fifty persons in the enclosure. The government of the conclave is in the hands of the cardinal camerlengo and of the three representative cardinals who succeed one another in order of seniority every three days. About seven or eight o'clock on the morning of the eleventh day the cardinals assemble in the Pauline Chapel and assist at the Mass of the cardinal dean. Formerly they wore the special garment of the conclave, called the crocea. They receive Communion from the hands of the cardinal dean, and listen to a Latin allocution on their obligations to select the most worthy person for the Chair of Peter. After Mass they retire for a few moments, and then assemble in the Sistine Chapel, where the actual voting takes place. There six candles are lighted on the altar on which rest the paten and chalice to be used in voting. Over the chair of each cardinal is a baldachinum. The papal throne is removed. Before each chair is also a small writing desk. When ready to vote they enter the Sistine Chapel accompanied by their conclavists bearing their portfolios and writing materials. Prayers are said by the bishop sacristan; the ballots are distributed and then all are excluded except the cardinals, one of whom bolts the door.

Though since Urban VI (1378-89) none but a cardinal has been elected pope, no law reserves to the cardinals alone this right. Strictly speaking, any male Christian who has reached the use of reason can be chosen — not, however, a heretic, a schismatic, or a notorious simonist. Since 14 January, 1505 (Julius II, "Cum tam divino") a simoniacal election is canonically invalid, as being a true and indisputable act of heresy (Wernz, "Jus Decret.", II, 658, 662; see "Hist. Pol. Blätter", 1898, 1900, and Sägmüller, "Lehrbuch d. Kirchenrechts", 1900, I, 215).

There are four possible forms of election: scrutinium, compromissum, accessus, quasi-inspiratio. The usual form is that of scrutinium, or secret ballot, and in it the successful candidate requires a two-thirds vote exclusive of his own. When there is a close vote, and only then, the ballot of the pope-elect, which, like all the others, is distinguishable by a text of Scripture written on one of its outside folds, is opened to make sure that he did not vote for himself. Each cardinal deposits his vote in the chalice on the altar and at the same time takes the prescribed oath: "Testor Christum Dominum qui me judicaturus est me eligere quem secundum Deum judice eligi debere et quod idem in accessu præstabo"—"I call to witness the Lord Christ, Who will be my judge, that I am electing the one whom according to God I think ought to be elected", etc. (For the form of the oath see Lucius Lector, "Le Conclave", 615, 618.) The ballot reads: "Ego, Cardinalis N., eligo in summum Pontificem R. D. meum D. Card. N."

For this election by secret ballot three cardinals (scrutatores) are chosen by lot each time to preside over the operation of voting, three others (revisores) to control the count of their colleagues, and still three others (infirmarii) to collect the ballots of the sick and absent cardinals. If the sick cardinals cannot attend the balloting, then the three infirmarii go to their cells and bring back their votes in a box to the three cardinals presiding, who count them and put them in the chalice with the others. Then, all the ballots having been shaken up and counted, if the number agrees with the number of electors, the chalice is brought to the table and the ballots, on the outside of which appear the names of the candidates, are passed from hand to hand to the third cardinal who reads the names aloud. All present are provided with lists on which the names of all the cardinals appear, and it is customary for the cardinals to check off the votes as they are read. Then the three cardinal revisors verify the result which is proclaimed as definite.
If, upon the first ballot, no candidate receives the necessary two-thirds vote, recourse is often had to the form of voting known as accessus. At the election of Pius X (Rev. des Deux Mondes, 15 March, 1904, p. 275) the cardinal dean did not allow the accessus, though it is a recognized usage of conclaves, regulated by Gregory XI, designed primarily to hasten elections, and usually considered to favour the chances of the candidate who has the most votes. It consists practically of a second ballot. All use the ordinary blanks again, with this difference, that if the elector wishes his vote to count for his first choice he writes Accedo nomini; if he changes his vote he introduces the name of his latest choice. Then the two series of ballots have to be compared and identified by the text on the reverse face of the ballot, so as to prevent a double vote for the same candidate by any elector. When the required two-thirds are not obtained, the ballots are consumed in a stove whose chimney extends through a window of the Sistine Chapel. When there is no election, straw is mixed with the ballots to show by its thick smoke (sfumata) to those waiting outside that there has been no election. There are always two votes taken every day, in the morning and in the evening; they occupy from two to three hours each. When the voting is over one of the cardinals opens the door outside of which are gathered the conclavists, and all retire to their cells. Other forms of election, made almost impossible by the legislation of Gregory XV, are known as quasi-inspiration and compromise. The former supposes that before a given session there had been no agreement among the cardinals and that then one of the cardinals, addressing the assembly, proposes the name of a candidate with the words Ego eligo (I elect, etc.), whereupon all the cardinals, as though moved by the Holy Spirit, proclaim aloud the same candidate, saying Ego eligo, etc. An election by compromise supposes that after a long and hopeless contest the cardinals unanimously delegate a certain number of their body to make a choice. It has not been employed since the fourteenth century.
When a candidate has obtained the required two-thirds vote in a scrutiny or ballot (the choice, since Adrian VI, 1522, falling on one present and invariably on an Italian cardinal), the cardinal dean proceeds to ask him whether he will accept the election and by what name he wishes to be known. Since the time of John XII (955-64; Sägmüller says Sergius IV, 1009-1012) each pope takes a new name in imitation of St. Peter's change of name (see Knöpfler, "Die Namensänderung der Päpste" in "Compte rendu du congrés internat. cath. à Fribourg", 1897, sec. v, 158 sqq.). The doors have previously been opened by the secretary of the conclave; the masters of ceremonies are present, and formal cognizance is taken of the pope's answers. Immediately the masters of ceremonies lower the canopies of all the cardinals' chairs save that of the pope-elect, and he is conducted to a neighbouring room where he is clothed in the papal garments (immantatio). The cardinals then advance and pay him the first "obedience", or homage (adoratio). The pope then either confirms or appoints the cardinal camerlengo, who puts upon his finger the Fisherman's Ring. Then follows the proclamation to the people made by the senior cardinal-deacon, formerly from the central balcony of St. Peter's overlooking the great Piazza, but since 1870 in St. Peter's itself. The conclave then usually terminates, the masons remove the temporary walls, and the cardinals retire to their various lodgings in the city, awaiting a reassembling for the second and third adoratio and for the solemn enthroning. If the pope happens not to be a bishop, he must be consecrated at once and, according to immemorial tradition, by the Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia. If already a bishop, there takes place only the solemn benedictio or blessing. However, he enjoys full jurisdiction from the moment of his election. On the following Sunday or Holy Day takes place, at the hands of the senior cardinal-deacon, the papal "coronation" from which day the new pope dates the years of his pontificate. The last act is the formal taking possession (possessio) of the Lateran Church, omitted since 1870. For the so-called Veto, occasionally exercised in the past by the Catholic Powers (Spain, Austria, France), see RIGHT OF EXCLUSION.


Sources

The actually valid legislation concerning the conclave is found in all manuals of canon law, e.g. WERNZ, Jus. Decret. (Rome, 1899), II, 653-665; SÄGMÜLLER, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts (Freiburg, 1900), 313-19; HERGENRÖTHER- HOLWECK, Lehrbuch des cath. Kirchenrechts (Freiburg, 1903), 268-73; LAURENTIUS, Instit. jur. eccl. (Freiburg, 1903), nos. 99-103; cf. BOUIX, De Curiâ Romanâ, 120, and De Papâ, III, 341-44.—The history of the conclave and its ceremonial use fully described in the (illustrated) work of LUCIUS LECTOR (Mgr. Guthlin), Le Conclave (Paris, 1894). It replaces advantageously the earlier work of VANEL on the history of the conclaves (Paris, 1689; 3rd ed., Cologne, 1703). English descriptions like those of TROLLOPE (London, 1876) and CARTWRIGHT (Edinburgh, 1868) are generally unreliable, being largely inspired by the anti-papal histories of conclaves written by the mendacious and inexact GREGORIO LETI (s. l., 1667, 1716), and the inaccurate and maliciously gossipy PETRUCCELLI DELLA GATTINA (Brussles, 1865). See Dublin Reviewd (1868), XI, 374-91, and Civiltá Cattolica (1877), I, 574-85; also CREIGHTON in Academy (1877), XI, 66. See La nouvelle législation du conclave in Université cath. (Lyons, 1892), 5-47, and TEELING, The Development of the Conclave in The Dolphin (Philadelphia, 1908). For a catalogue of studies (often documentary) on special conclaves, see CLEROTI, Bibliografia di Roma papale e medievale (Rome, 1893). The conclave that elected Pius X is described by an eyewitness (Un Témoin), said to be Cardinal Mathieu, in Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 March, 1904. See other valuable recent literature in the articles PAPAL ELECTIONS, and RIGHT OF EXCLUSION.

About this page

APA citation. Dowling, A. (1908). Conclave. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04192a.htm

MLA citation. Dowling, Austin. "Conclave." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 25 Feb. 2013 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04192a.htm>.

Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by WGKofron. With thanks to Fr. John Hilkert, Akron, Ohio.

Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.

Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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Papal conclave
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The 1492 conclave was the first to be held in the Sistine Chapel, the site of all conclaves since 1878.
A papal conclave is a meeting of the College of Cardinals convened to elect a new Bishop of Rome, also known as the Pope. The pope is considered by Roman Catholics to be the apostolic successor of Saint Peter and earthly head of the Roman Catholic Church.[1] The conclave has been the procedure for choosing the pope for more than half of the time the church has been in existence, and is the oldest ongoing method for choosing the leader of an institution.[2]

A history of political interference in papal selection and consequently long vacancies between popes, culminating in the interregnum of 1268–1271, prompted Pope Gregory X to decree during the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 that the cardinal electors should be locked in seclusion cum clave (Latin for "with a key") and not permitted to leave until a new Bishop of Rome had been elected.[3] Conclaves are now held in the Sistine Chapel of the Apostolic Palace.[4]

Since the Apostolic Age, the Bishop of Rome, like other bishops, was chosen by the consensus of the clergy and laity of the diocese.[5] The body of electors was more precisely defined when, in 1059, the College of Cardinals was designated the sole body of electors.[6] Since then other details of the process have developed. In 1970, Pope Paul VI limited the electors to cardinals under 80 years of age. The current procedures were established by Pope John Paul II in his apostolic constitution Universi Dominici Gregis[4] as amended by a motu proprio of Pope Benedict XVI dated 11 June 2007. A two-thirds supermajority vote is required to elect the new pope, which also requires acceptance from the person elected.[7][8]

Contents  [hide]
1 Historical development
1.1 The electorate
1.2 Choice of the electors
1.3 Secular influence
1.4 Conclaves
2 Modern practice
2.1 Death of the pope
2.2 Resignation of a Pope
2.3 Before the sealing of the Sistine Chapel
2.4 Expelling the outsiders
2.5 Voting
2.6 Acceptance and proclamation
3 Historical voting patterns
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
[edit]Historical development

Main article: Papal selection before 1059
The procedures relating to the election of the pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 with the promulgation of Ubi periculum by Gregory X, based on the action of the magistrates of Viterbo during the interregnum of 1268–1271.[9]

[edit]The electorate
As the Christian communities became established they started to elect bishops, chosen by the clergy and laity of the community with the assistance of the bishops of neighbouring dioceses.[5] St. Cyprian says that Pope Cornelius was chosen Bishop of Rome "by the decree of God and of His Church, by the testimony of nearly all the clergy, by the college of aged bishops [sacerdotum], and of good men."[10] As was true for bishops of other dioceses, the clergy of the Diocese of Rome was the electoral body for the Bishop of Rome. Instead of casting votes, the bishop was selected by general consensus or by acclamation. The candidate would then be submitted to the people for their general approval or disapproval. This lack of precision in the election procedures occasionally gave rise to rival popes or antipopes.[11]

The right of the laity to refuse the person elected was abolished by a Synod held in the Lateran in 769, but restored to Roman noblemen by Pope Nicholas I during a Synod of Rome in 862.[11] The pope was also subjected to oaths of loyalty to the Holy Roman Emperor, whose task it was to provide security and public peace in Rome.[12] A major change was introduced in 1059, when Pope Nicholas II decreed in In Nomine Domini that the cardinals were to elect a candidate, who would take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. The cardinal bishops were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the cardinal priests and cardinal deacons for the actual vote.[10] The Second Council of the Lateran in 1139 removed the requirement that the assent of the lower clergy and the laity be obtained,[11] while the Third Council of the Lateran in 1179 gave equal rights to the entire College of Cardinals when electing a new pope.[13]

Through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance there were a small number of cardinals, down to as few as seven under either Pope Alexander IV[14] or Pope John XXI[15][16] Difficult travel further reduced the number arriving at the conclave. With a small electorate an individual vote was significant, and was not easily shaken from familial or political lines. Conclaves could last months and even years. In addition to the decree in 1274 that the electors should be locked in seclusion, Gregory X also limited each cardinal elector to two servants, and rationed their food progressively on the fourth and ninth days should they fail to elect a new pope.[11] The strict rules of the conclave were disliked by the cardinals and temporarily suspended by Pope Adrian V in 1276 before being formally revoked by John XXI's Licet felicis recordationis later that same year, both of whom had intended to promulgate new constitution governing papal election but died before doing so.[15][17] Lengthy elections resumed and continued to be the norm until 1294, when a Benedictine hermit was elected Pope Celestine V. Celestine reinstated the strict conclave, but soon resigned the papacy.[18] Long interregna occurred after the reinstatement of the conclave: in 1314–1316 during the Avignon Papacy, where the original conclave were dispersed by besieging mercenaries and not reconvened until almost two years had passed;[19] and in 1415–1417, as a result of the Western Schism.

In 1587, Pope Sixtus V limited the maximum number of cardinals to 70, following the precedent of Moses who was assisted by 70 elders in governing the Children of Israel: six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons.[14] Beginning with Pope John XXIII's attempts to broaden the representation of nations in the College of Cardinals, that number has increased. In 1970, Paul VI decreed that cardinals upon reaching the age of eighty before a conclave start were ineligible to vote in the conclave, and also increased the limit of active cardinal electors to 120.[20][21] Though this remains the theoretical limit, John Paul II exceeded this for short periods of time with knowledge of impending retirements. John Paul II also specified that cardinals who are under eighty before the day the Holy See becomes vacant would still be entitled to vote even if they had turned eighty by the time the conclave starts.[4]

[edit]Choice of the electors
Originally, lay status did not bar election to the Bishopric of Rome. Bishops of dioceses were sometimes elected while still catechumens, such as the case of St. Ambrose.[22] In the wake of the violent dispute over the election of Antipope Constantine II, Pope Stephen III held the synod of 769 which decreed that only a cardinal priest or cardinal deacon could be elected specifically excluding those that are already bishops.[23][10] This was however deviated from as early as 817 and fully ignored from 882 with the election of Pope Marinus I, the Bishop of Caere.[24] Nicholas II, in the synod of 1059, formally codified existing practise by decreeing that preference were to be given to the clergy of Rome, but leaving the cardinal bishops free to select a cleric from elsewhere if they so decided.[25] These restrictions on eligibility were rescinded by the Council of 1179.[13]

Pope Urban VI in 1378 was the last pope elected from outside the College of Cardinals. The last person elected as pope who was not already an ordained priest or monk was Pope Leo X in 1513, who was also the youngest pope ever elected. His successor, Pope Adrian VI, was the last to be elected in absentia.[26] In more recent history it is reported that Archbishop Giovanni Montini of Milan received several votes in the 1958 conclave despite not being a cardinal.[25] The newly elected John XXIII elevated Montini to the cardinalate almost immediately,[27] and would be succeeded by him as Paul VI in 1963. As the Catholic Church holds that women cannot be validly ordained, women are not eligible for the papacy.[28] Claims that there was a female pope, including the legendary Pope Joan, are generally considered fictitious.[29][30] Though the pope is the Bishop of Rome, he need not be of Italian background. The present incumbent, Benedict XVI, is a German.

A simple majority vote sufficed for election until 1179, when the Third Council of the Lateran increased the required majority to two-thirds.[13][31] As cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves (after 1621), an elaborate procedure was adopted to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing self voting.[32][33] In 1945, Pope Pius XII removed the prohibition on a cardinal voting for himself by increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one at all times.[34] This change was immediately overturned by his successor John XXIII who reinstated the two-thirds majority if the number of cardinal electors voting is divisible by three, with a rounding up to two-thirds plus one otherwise.[35] Pius XII's rule was reinstated by Paul VI thirteen years later,[21] but overturned again by John Paul II. In 1996, John Paul II's constitution allowed election by absolute majority if deadlock prevailed after thirty three or thirty four ballots.[36][4] In 2007 Benedict XVI rescinded John Paul II's change, which had been criticised as effectively abolishing the two-thirds majority requirement, as any majority would suffice to block the election until a simple majority was enough to elect the next pope, reaffirming the requirement of a two-thirds majority.[7][8]

Electors formerly made choices by accessus, acclamation (per inspirationem), adoration, compromise (per compromissum) or scrutiny (per scrutinium).[9] With acclamation, the cardinals would unanimously declare the new pope quasi afflati Spiritu Sancto (as if inspired by the Holy Spirit).[34] If this took place before any formal ballot has taken place, the method was called adoration[37], but this method was excluded in 1621 by Pope Gregory XV.[38][39] To elect by compromise, a deadlocked College would unanimously delegate the election to a committee of cardinals whose choice they all agree to abide by.[34] Scrutiny is election via the casting of secret ballots. Accessus was a method for cardinals to change their most recent vote to accede to another candidate in an attempt to reach the requsite two-thirds majority and end the conclave. This method was first disallowed by the Cardinal Dean at the 1903 conclave.[9] The last election by compromise is considered to be that of Pope John XXII in 1316, and the last election by acclamation that of Pope Innocent XI in the 1676 conclave.[40] The long unused method of acclamation and compromise was formally abolished in Universi Dominici Gregis. Scrutiny is now the only approved method for the election of a new pope.[4]

[edit]Secular influence
For a significant part of its history, the Church was influenced in the choice of its leaders by powerful monarchs and governments. For example, the Roman emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of popes. In 418, Honorius settled a controversial election, upholding Pope Boniface I over the challenger Antipope Eulalius. On the request of Boniface I, Honorius ordered that in future cases, any disputed election would be settled by a fresh election.[41] After the demise of the Western Roman Empire, influence passed to the Ostrogothic Kings of Italy and in 533, Pope John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. By 537, the Ostrogothic monarchy had been overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine emperors. A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna upon the death of a pope before proceeding with the election.[42] Once the electors arrived at a choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. Lengthy delays were caused by the journey to and from Constantinople.[43] When Pope Benedict II complained about them, Emperor Constantine IV acquiesced, ending the requirement that elections be confirmed by emperors. Thereafter, the Emperor was only required to be notified.[44] The last pope to notify the Byzantine emperors was Pope Zachary in 741.[45]

In the 9th century, the Holy Roman Empire came to exert control over the elections of popes. While Charlemagne and Louis the Pious did not interfere with the Church, Lothair I claimed that an election could only be conducted in the presence of imperial ambassadors.[46] In 898, riots forced Pope John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor.[47][48] At the same time, the Roman nobility also continued to exert a great influence, especially during the tenth century period known as saeculum obscurum (Latin for "the dark age").[49]

In 1059, the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor, at the time Henry IV, but only as a concession made by the pope, declaring that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements.[25] Pope Gregory VII was the last to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors. The breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by the Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the Emperor's role.[50] In 1122, the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms, accepting the papal decision.[51]

From about 1600, certain Catholic monarchs claimed a jus exclusivae (right of exclusion), i.e. a veto over papal elections, exercised through a crown-cardinal. By an informal convention, each state claiming the veto was allowed to exercise the right once per conclave. Therefore, a crown-cardinal did not announce the veto until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. This was however not strictly enforced, as Francis II through František de Paula Hrzán z Harasova is known to have exercised the veto twice at the 1799–1800 conclave.[52] No vetoes could be employed after an election. After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, its veto power devolved upon the Austrian Empire. The last exercise of the veto was in 1903, when Prince Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko informed the College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Rampolla. Consequently, the College elected Giuseppe Sarto as Pope Pius X, who issued the papal bull Commissum nobis six months later declaring that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto in the future would suffer excommunication latae sententiae.[53][54]

[edit]Conclaves
To resolve prolonged deadlocks in the earlier years of papal elections, local authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors, such as that first adopted by the city of Rome in 1241, and possibly before that by Perugia in 1216.[55] In 1269, when the forced seclusion of the cardinals alone failed to produce a pope, the city of Viterbo refused to send in any materials except bread and water. When even this failed to produce a result, the townspeople removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi in their attempt to speed up the election.[56]

In an attempt to avoid future lengthy elections, Gregory X introduced stringent rules with the promulgation of Ubi periculum. Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area and not accorded individual rooms. No cardinal was allowed, unless ill, to be attended by more than two servants. Food was supplied through a window to avoid outside contact.[57] After three days of the conclave, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after another five days, they were to receive just bread and water. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue.[11][58]

Gregory X's strict regulations were abolished in 1276 by Adrian V, but Celestine V, elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, restored them. In 1562, Pius IV issued a papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the enclosure of the conclave and other procedures. Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other, in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. In 1904, Pope Pius X issued a constitution consolidating almost all the previous rules, making some changes. Several reforms were also instituted by John Paul II in 1996.[9]

The location of the conclaves was not fixed until the fourteenth century. Since the Western Schism, however, elections have always been held in Rome (except in 1800, when French troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice), and normally in what, since the Lateran Treaties of 1929, has become the independent Vatican City State. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican has always served as the location of the election. Popes have often fine-tuned the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis of 1945 governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII's Summi Pontificis Electio of 1962 that of 1963, Pope Paul VI's Romano Pontifici Eligendo of 1975 those of 1978, and John Paul II's Universi Dominici Gregis of 1996 that of 2005.[59]

[edit]Modern practice

In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new Apostolic Constitution, called Universi Dominici Gregis (The Lord's Whole Flock), which with a slight modification by Pope Benedict XVI now governs the election of the pope, abolishing all previous constitutions on the matter, but preserving many procedures that date to much earlier times.

Under Universi Dominici Gregis, the cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice, the Domus Sanctae Marthae, but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.[60]

Several duties are performed by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, who is always a Cardinal Bishop. If the Dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave owing to age, his place is taken by the Sub-Dean, who is also always a Cardinal Bishop. If the Sub-Dean also cannot participate, the senior Cardinal Bishop participating performs the functions.[61]

Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, there have been proposals that the electorate should be expanded. Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops, which includes many more members. Under present procedure, however, the Synod may only meet when called by the pope. Universi Dominici Gregis explicitly provides that even if a synod or an ecumenical council is in session at the time of a pope's death, it may not perform the election. Upon the pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new pope.[62]

It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of pope. However, there is inevitably always much speculation about which Cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. Speculation tends to mount when a pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. A Cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is described informally as a papabile (an adjective used substantively: the plural form is papabili), a term coined by Italian-speaking Vatican watchers in the mid-twentieth century, literally meaning 'pope-able'.

[edit]Death of the pope


The Cardinal Camerlengo proclaims a papal death.
The death of the pope is verified by the Cardinal Camerlengo, or Chamberlain, who traditionally performed the task by gently striking the pope's head with a small silver hammer and calling out his Christian (not papal) name three times. During the twentieth century the use of the hammer in this ritual has been abandoned; under Universi Dominici Gregis, the Camerlengo must merely declare the pope's death in the presence of the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, and of the Cleric Prelates, Secretary and Chancellor of the Apostolic Camera. The Cardinal Camerlengo takes possession of the Ring of the Fisherman worn by the pope; the ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign.[63]

During the sede vacante, as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals. All cardinals are obliged to attend the General Congregation of Cardinals, except those whose health does not permit, or who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please). The Particular Congregation, which deals with the day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the Cardinal Camerlengo and the three Cardinal Assistants—one Cardinal-Bishop, one Cardinal-Priest and one Cardinal-Deacon—chosen by lot. Every three days, new Cardinal Assistants are chosen by lot. The Cardinal Camerlengo and Cardinal Assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy.[64]

The Congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of the pope's burial, which by tradition takes place within four to six days of the pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and is to be followed by a nine-day period of mourning (this is known as the novemdiales, Latin for "nine days"). The Congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of the pope, but the Congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City.[65]

[edit]Resignation of a Pope
A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal resignation. Until the pending resignation of Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, no pope had abdicated since Gregory XII in 1415.[66] In his book The Light of the World Benedict XVI had espoused the idea of abdication on health grounds which already had some theological respectability.[67]

[edit]Before the sealing of the Sistine Chapel
The cardinals hear two sermons before the election: one before actually entering the conclave, and one once they are settled in the Sistine Chapel. In both cases, the sermons are meant to lay out the current state of the Church, and to suggest the qualities necessary for a pope to possess in that specific time. The first preacher in the 2005 conclave was Fr. Raniero Cantalamessa, the preacher of the papal household and a member of the Capuchin Franciscan order, who spoke at one of the meetings of the cardinals held before the actual day when the conclave began.[68] Cardinal Tomáš Špidlík, a former professor at the Pontifical Oriental Institute and a non-voting member (due to age) of the College of Cardinals, spoke just before the doors were finally closed for the conclave.[69]

On the morning of the day designated by the Congregations of Cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in St Peter's Basilica to celebrate the Eucharist. Then, they gather in the afternoon in the Pauline Chapel of the Palace of the Vatican, proceeding to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Veni Creator Spiritus.[70] The Cardinals then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard the instructions of secular authorities on voting. The Cardinal Dean reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence, the other cardinal electors merely state, while touching the Gospels, that they "do so promise, pledge and swear."[71]

[edit]Expelling the outsiders
After all the cardinals present have taken the oath, the Master of the Papal Liturgical Celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinals electors and conclave participants to leave the Chapel. Traditionally, he stands at the door of the Sistine Chapel and calls out: "Extra omnes!" (Latin for, roughly, "Everybody else, out!") He then closes the door.[72]

The Master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the Congregations prior to the commencement of the election. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning the problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new pope needs to have. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. Following the recitation of prayers, the Cardinal Dean asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless. An ill cardinal may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave.[73]

Although in the past cardinal electors could be accompanied by attendants ("conclavists"), now only a nurse may accompany a cardinal who for reasons of ill-health, as confirmed by the Congregation of Cardinals, needs such assistance.[4] The Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, two Masters of Ceremonies, two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the Dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. Priests are available to hear confessions in different languages; two doctors are also admitted. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and the preparing and serving of meals.

Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are forbidden to disclose any information relating to the election. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone or otherwise and eavesdropping is an offense punishable by excommunication latae sententiae. Only three cardinals electors are admitted to communicate with the outside world under grave circumstances, prior to approval of the College, to fulfil their duties: the Major Penitentiary, the Cardinal Vicar for the Diocese of Rome, and the Vicar General for the Vatican City State.[4]

Before the conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI, the Sistine Chapel was "swept" using the latest electronic devices to detect any hidden "bugs" or surveillance devices (there were no reports that any were found, but in previous conclaves there were discovered press reporters who had disguised themselves as conclave servants). Universi Dominici Gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers, the radio, and television.[74]

[edit]Voting


Cardinals formerly used these intricate ballot papers, one of which is shown folded above. Currently, the ballots are simple cards, folded once (like a note card), with the words "I elect as Supreme Pontiff ....." printed on them.
On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot may be held. If a ballot takes place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one is elected, or no ballot had taken place, four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. Before voting in the morning and again before voting in the afternoon, the electors take an oath to obey the rules of the conclave. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by the senior Cardinal Deacon. After seven further ballots, the process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior Cardinal Priest. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior Cardinal Bishop. After a further seven ballots, there shall be a day of prayer, reflection and dialogue. In the following ballots, only the two names who received the most votes in the last ballot shall be eligible in a runoff election. However, the two people who are being voted on, if Cardinal electors, shall not themselves have the right to vote.[7]

The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny", the "scrutiny", and the "post-scrutiny." During the pre-scrutiny, the Masters of the Ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations and the Masters of Ceremonies exit; the junior Cardinal Deacon then closes the door. The junior Cardinal Deacon then draws by lot nine names; the first three become Scrutineers, the second three Infirmarii and the last three Revisers. New Scrutineers, Infirmarii and Revisers are not selected again after the first scrutiny; the same nine cardinals perform the same task for the second scrutiny. After lunch, the election resumes with the oath to obey the rules of the conclave taken anew when the cardinals again assemble in the Sistine Chapel. Nine names are chosen for new scrutineers, infirmarii, and revisers. The third scrutiny then commences, and if necessary, a fourth immediately follows.

The scrutiny phase of the election is as follows: The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to the altar, where the Scrutineers stand. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes a Latin oath, which translates to: "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected." If any cardinal elector is in the Chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last Scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the Infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box. Any such sick cardinals take the oath and then complete the ballot papers. When the Infirmarii return to the Chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. This oath is taken by all cardinals as they cast their ballots. If no one is chosen on the first scrutiny, then a second scrutiny immediately follows. A total of four scrutinies are taken each day, two in the morning and two in the afternoon.

The oath when casting one's vote is therefore anonymous, since the name of the elector is no longer signed on the ballot with that of the candidate. (Previously, the ballot was also signed by the elector and then folded over to cover the signature of the elector and then sealed to result in a semi-secret ballot. See example above.) This was the procedure prior to 1945. Above is a copy of the old three section semi-secret ballot, which was last used in the conclave of 1939. There was no oath taken when actually casting ballots, prior to 1621. Completely secret ballots (at the option of the cardinals present and voting) were sometimes used prior to 1621, but these secret ballots had no oath taken when the vote was actually cast. At some conclaves prior to 1621, the cardinals verbally voted and sometimes stood in groups to facilitate counting the votes cast. The signature of the elector covered by a folded-over part of the ballot paper was added by Gregory XV in 1621, to prevent anyone from casting the deciding vote for himself. Cardinal Pole of England refused to cast the deciding vote for himself in 1549 (and was not elected), but in 1492 Cardinal Borgia (Alexander VI) did cast the deciding vote for himself. Faced by the mortal challenge to the papacy emanating from Protestantism, and fearing schism due to several stormy conclaves in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Gregory XV established this procedure to prevent any cardinal from casting the deciding vote for himself. Since 1945, a cardinal can again cast the deciding vote for himself, though the 2/3 majority rule has always been continued, except when John Paul II had modified that rule in 1996 (after 33 ballots, a simple majority was sufficient), with the 2/3 majority rule restored in 2007 by Benedict XVI.

Prior to 1621, the only oath taken was that of obedience to the rules of the conclave in force at that time, when the cardinals entered the conclave and the doors were locked, and each morning and afternoon as they entered the Sistine Chapel to vote. Gregory XV added the additional oath, taken when each cardinal casts his ballot, to prevent cardinals wasting time in casting "courtesy votes" and instead narrowing the number of realistic candidates for the papal throne to perhaps only two or three. Speed in electing a pope was important, and that meant using an oath so as to get the cardinals down to the serious business of electing a new pope and narrowing the number of potentially electable candidates. The reforms of Gregory XV in 1621 and reaffirmed in 1622 created the written detailed step-by-step procedure used in choosing a pope; a procedure that was essentially the same as that which was used in 2005 to elect Benedict XVI. The biggest change since 1621 was the elimination of the rule that required the electors to sign their ballots resulting in the detailed voting procedure of scrutiny making use of anonymous oaths. This was perhaps the most significant change in the modern era. It was a significant change to the step-by-step voting procedure, since that detailed voting procedure was first created in 1621. It was Pius XII who made this change in 1945.

Once all votes have been cast, the first Scrutineer chosen shakes the container, and the last Scrutineer removes and counts the ballots. If the number of ballots does not correspond to the number of cardinal electors present, the ballots are burnt, unread, and the vote is repeated. If, however, no irregularities are observed, the ballots may be opened and the votes counted. Each ballot is unfolded by the first Scrutineer; all three Scrutineers separately write down the name indicated on the ballot. The last of the Scrutineers reads the name aloud.

Once all of the ballots have been opened, the final post-scrutiny phase begins. The Scrutineers add up all of the votes, and the Revisers check the ballots and the names on the Scrutineers' lists to ensure that no error was made. The ballots are then all burnt by the Scrutineers with the assistance of the Secretary of the College and the Masters of Ceremonies. If the first scrutiny held in any given morning or afternoon does not result in an election, the cardinals proceed to the next scrutiny immediately; the papers from both scrutinies are burnt together at the end of the second scrutiny. The colour of the smoke signals the results to the people assembled in St Peter's Square. Dark smoke signals that the ballot did not result in an election, while white smoke signals that a new pope was chosen. Originally, damp straw was added to the fire to create dark smoke; beginning in 1963 coloring chemicals have been added, and beginning in 2005 bells ring after a successful election, to augment the white smoke, and especially if the white smoke is not unambiguously white.[75] Prior to 1945 (the year Pius XII changed the form of ballot to use anonymous oaths, first carried out in 1958), when the ballots were of the more complex type illustrated above, the sealing wax which was used in those ballots had an effect in making the smoke from burning the ballots either black or white, depending on whether damp straw was added or not. This explains the confusion over the color of the smoke in the conclave of 1958, caused by the lack of sealing wax in the paper ballots burned with or without damp straw (depending on whether an election had taken place or not).

[edit]Acceptance and proclamation
Once the election concludes, the Cardinal Dean summons the Secretary of the College of Cardinals and the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations into the hall. The Cardinal Dean then asks the pope-elect if he assents to the election, saying in Latin: "Acceptasne electionem de te canonice factam in Summum Pontificem? (Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?)" There is no requirement that the pope-elect do so: he is free to say "non accepto" (I don't accept). In practice, however, any potential pope-elect who intends not to accept will explicitly state this before he has been given a sufficient number of votes to become pope. This has happened in modern times with Giovanni Colombo in October 1978.[76]

If he accepts, and is already a bishop, he immediately takes office. If he is not a bishop, however, he must be first consecrated as one before he can assume office. If a priest is elected, the Cardinal Dean consecrates him bishop; if a layman is elected, then the Cardinal Dean first ordains him deacon, then priest, and only then consecrates him as bishop. Only after becoming a bishop does the pope-elect take office.

(The above functions of the Dean are assumed, if necessary, by the sub-Dean, and if the sub-Dean is also impeded, they are assumed by the senior cardinal-bishop in attendance. Notice that in 2005 the Dean himself—Joseph Ratzinger—was elected pope.)

Since 533, the new pope has also decided on the name by which he is to be called at this time. Pope John II was the first to adopt a new papal name; he felt that his original name, Mercurius, was inappropriate, as it was also the name of a Roman god. In most cases, even if such considerations are absent, popes tend to choose new papal names; the last pope to reign under his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II (1555). After the newly-elected pope accepts his election, the Cardinal Dean asks him about his papal name, saying in Latin: "Quo nomine vis vocari? (By what name do you wish to be called?)" After the papal name is chosen, the officials are readmitted to the conclave, and the Master of Pontifical Liturgical Ceremonies writes a document recording the acceptance and the new name of the pope.

Later, the new pope goes to the "Room of Tears", a small red room next to the Sistine Chapel. The pope dresses by himself, choosing a set of pontifical choir robes (white cassock, rochet and red mozzetta) from three sizes provided. Then, he vests in a gold corded pectoral cross and a red embroidered stole. He wears a white zucchetto on his head.

Next, the senior Cardinal Deacon (the Cardinal Protodeacon) appears at the main balcony of the basilica's façade to proclaim the new pope with the Latin phrase (assuming the new Pope was a cardinal):

Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum:
Habemus Papam!
Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum,
Dominum [forename],
Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem [surname],
qui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name].

("I announce to you a great joy:
We have a Pope!
The Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lord,
Lord [forename],
Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church [surname],
who takes to himself the name [papal name].")

It has happened in the past that the Cardinal Protodeacon has himself been the person elected pope. In such an event the announcement is made by the next senior Deacon, who has thus succeeded as Protodeacon. During the election of Pope Leo XIII in 1878 Protodeacon Prospero Caterini was physically incapable of completing the announcement, so another made it for him.

The new pope then gives his first apostolic blessing, Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World").

Formerly, the pope would later be crowned by the triregnum or Triple Tiara at the Papal Coronation. John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI did not want an elaborate coronation, choosing instead to have a simpler Papal Inauguration ceremony.[77]

[edit]Historical voting patterns


This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. (February 2013)
The newly elected pope often contrasts dramatically with his predecessor, a tendency expressed by the Italian saying "After a fat pope, a lean pope". Past cardinals have often voted for someone radically different from the pope who appointed them. The controversial one-time populist-turned-conservative, long-lived Pope Pius IX (1846–1878) was succeeded by the aristocratic and diplomatic Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903). He in turn was succeeded by the lower-class, bluntly outspoken Pope Pius X (1903–1914). Pius X's rugged ultra-conservatism contrasted with the low-key moderatism of Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922), which again contrasted with the former librarian and mountain climber Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who led Roman Catholicism with an authoritarianism more akin to Pius X, who also shared his temper.

Pius XI was succeeded in 1939 by the aristocratic ultra-insider Curialist, Pius XI's Secretary of State, Pope Pius XII (1939–1958). Pius XII was seen as one of the great thinkers in the papacy in the 20th century. He was also the ultimate insider; his family were descended from the Roman aristocracy, with his brother working as a lawyer for the Holy See. Pius was succeeded by the lower-class, elderly, popular, informal Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). The contrast between diffident, intellectual and distant Pius XII and the humble—in his own words "ordinary"—"Good Pope John" was dramatic, with none more surprised at the election than Pope John himself, who had his own return rail ticket in his pocket when he was elected.

John proved to be a radical break with the two previous popes, and indeed with most of the popes of the 20th century. After a short but dramatic pontificate during which he convoked the Second Vatican Council which resulted in wide ranging changes in the church, the surprise John was replaced by the widely expected choice Giovanni Batista Montini, who many believed would have been elected in 1958, had he been a cardinal then. Like Pius XII, Pope Paul VI (1963–1978) was a curialist. He had worked with Pius XII in the 1930s and 1940s in the curia. Yet Paul VI was succeeded (albeit for a short time) by the non-curialist Pope John Paul I (1978). He in turn was succeeded by the first non-Italian since 1523, Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), who spoke many languages and was originally from the Eastern Bloc (an important consideration given Cold War politics and the Church's repression in the East). He was succeeded in 2005 by the German Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and Dean of the College of Cardinals Joseph Ratzinger as Pope Benedict XVI.[78]

[edit]See also

Conclave capitulation
Elective monarchy
List of papal elections
Papal appointment
[edit]Notes

^  Fanning, William H. W. (1913). "Vicar of Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner, F. J. (2006). "Creating the Rules of the Modern Papal Election". Election Law Journal 5: 57–73. doi:10.1089/elj.2006.5.57. edit
^  Goyau, Georges (1913). "Second Council of Lyons (1274)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ a b c d e f g John Paul II (22 February 1996). Universi Dominici Gregis. Apostolic constitution. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.
^ a b Baumgartner 2003, p. 4.
^  Weber, N. A. (1913). "Pope Nicholas II". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ a b c Benedict XVI (11 June 2007). De aliquibus mutationibus in normis de electione Romani Pontificis (in Latin). Motu proprio. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.
^ a b "Pope alters voting for successor". BBC News. 26 June 2007.
^ a b c d  Dowling, A. (1913). "Conclave". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ a b c  Joyce, G. H. (1913). "Election of the Popes". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ a b c d e  Fanning, W. H. W. (1913). "Papal Elections". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner 2003, p. 14–19.
^ a b c Guruge 2010, p. 49.
^ a b  Sägmüller, Johannes Baptist (1913). "Cardinal". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ a b Miranda, Salvador. "Election of May 30 - November 25, 1277 (Nicholas III)".
^ Adams, John Paul (7 November 2010). "SEDE VACANTE 1277".
^  Kirsch, Johann Peter (1913). "Pope John XXI (XX)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner 2003, p. 44–46.
^ Levillain 2002, p. 848.
^ Paul VI (20 November 1970). Ingravescentem Aetatem (in Latin). Motu proprio. Vatican City.
^ a b Paul VI (1 October 1975). Romano Pontifici Eligendo (in Latin). Apostolic constitution. Vatican City.
^  Loughlin, James Francis (1913). "St. Ambrose". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner 2003, p. 13.
^ Guruge 2010, p. 46–47.
^ a b c Baumgartner 2003, p. 21-23.
^ Guruge 2010, p. 36-37.
^ "Consistory - 1958". Cheney, David M.
^ Canon 1024 states: "A baptized male alone receives sacred ordination validly." John Paul II (25 January 1983). "THOSE TO BE ORDAINED". Code of Canon Law IV(I)VI.II. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.
^  Kirsch, J.P. (1913). "Popess Joan". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Lord, Lewis (24 July 2000). "The lady was a pope: A bestseller revives the outlandish tale of Joan". U.S. News Online. U.S. News & World Report.
^ "THIRD LATERAN COUNCIL (1179)". Legion of Mary - Tidewater.
^ Each ballot paper was divided into three parts, in the first was written the cardinal's name, in the second the name of the individual voted for, and in the third a motto of the cardinal's choice and a number. The first and third divisions were folded down and sealed with wax, with the middle exposed; the back was heavily decorated so that the writing would not be visible. Thus, when the scrutineers (the vote counters) removed a ballot paper from the box, they could see only the name of the candidate selected. If a cardinal, present and voting, received exactly two-thirds of the votes cast, the motto and number part of the ballot papers were unsealed one by one until the scrutineers located that cardinal's own vote and then the signature portion of that ballot only was opened to verify that the chosen cardinal did not vote for himself.
^ Wintle 1903, p. 5.
^ a b c Pius XII (8 December 1945). Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis (in Latin). Apostolic constitution. Vatican City.
^ John XXIII (5 September 1962). Summi Pontificis Electio (in Latin). Motu proprio. AAS. 54. (1962) pp. 632–640. Vatican City.
^ Thirty four ballots if a ballot was held on the first afternoon of the conclave.
^ Baumgartner 2003, Glossary.
^  Ludovisi, Alessandro (1913). "Pope Gregory XV". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Gregory XV (15 November 1621). "Aeterni Patris". Papal bull. Rome.
^ Toman, J. T. (5 January 2004). The Papal Conclave: How do Cardinals Divine the Will of God?.
^  Peterson, John B. (1913). "Pope St. Boniface I". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner 2003, p. 10.
^ Duffy 2006, p. 73.
^  Mann, Horace K. (1913). "Pope St. Benedict II". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Baumgartner 2003, p. 12.
^ Kurtz 1889, p. 489.
^  Mann, Horace K. (1913). "Pope John IX". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "John IX (pope)". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^ Brook, Lindsay (2003). "Popes and Pornocrats: Rome in the Early Middle Ages". Foundation for Medieval Genealogy 1 (1): 5–21.
^ Nelson, Lynn H. (1999) "The Owl, The Cat, And The Investiture Controversy: 1000 - 1122".
^ "The Concordat of Worms 1122". Halsall, Paul (ed.) Internet Medieval Source Book (January 1996).
^ Miranda, Salvador. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 12, 1779".
^  Sägmüller, Johannes Baptist (1913). "Right of Exclusion". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Conclave". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^ Guruge 2010, p. 141.
^ Wright, David (18 April 2005). "Inside Longest Papal Conclave in History". Viterbo: ABC News.
^ Formerly, cardinals regularly had meals sent in from their homes with much pageantry accompanying the conveyance of food, which was taken from a cardinal's home to the Vatican by a state coach. An officer known as the Seneschal Dapifer was responsible for ensuring that the food was not poisoned. The dishes, in small boxes covered with green and violet drapery, were carried through the hall, preceded by an individual carrying the cardinal's ceremonial mace and by the Seneschal Dapifer bearing a serviette on the shoulder. Before the cardinals could receive them, the dishes were carefully inspected to make sure that no correspondence was enclosed. These ceremonies have not been observed since the nineteenth century.
^ Goda, Paul (15 April 2005). "Papal Election Procedure: Incarnate History and Faith in a Higher Good". Jurist Forum, University of Pittsburgh School of Law.
^ See the article, Toward the conclave #5: a brief history of conclaves, from the Catholic News Service for a discussion of how the conclave evolved.
^ Domus Sanctae Marthae & The New Urns Used in the Election of the Pope from EWTN
^ Cardinal Sodano elected dean of College of Cardinals
^ Some have proposed the election of the pope by a special synod of bishops. This would imitate some of the Eastern-rite churches where metropolitans and patriarchs are elected by synods of bishops. However, the method for selecting the synod members would inevitably be controversial. Cardinals and Conclaves, By Thomas J. Reese, S.J., senior fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center, America, November 19, 1994.
^ Toward the conclave #1: the office of camerlengo
^ Sede Vacante, from Aquinas publishing
^ For a description of John Paul II's burial see A pope among popes
^  Ott, Michael T. (1913). "Pope Gregory XII". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Stanford, Peter. "Pope resigns: The pope who was not afraid to say sorry". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ See the home page here
^ Homepage for Card. Tomáš Špidlík
^ Veni Creator Spiritus from the Catholic Encyclopedia
^ Cardinals Hold Last Meeting Before Conclave to Elect Pope, Voice of America, 16-04-2005
^ Cardinals Gather to Mourn Pope, Choose Successor, 04.04.05, Newshour,
^ If a Cardinal with the right to vote should refuse to enter Vatican City in order to take part in the election, or subsequently, once the election has begun, should refuse to remain in order to discharge his office, without manifest reason of illness attested to under oath by doctors and confirmed by the majority of the electors, the other Cardinals shall proceed freely with the election, without waiting for him or readmitting him. The Election of a New Pope, Malta Media.
^ 2 - Secret conclave, from the BBC
^ 3 - Voting rituals, from the BBC series "Choosing a Pope"
^ Thomas J. Resse SJ, Inside The Vatican: The Politics and Organization of the Catholic Church, Harvard University Press (1996), p. 99.
^ 5 - New pope announced, Choosing a Pope, BBC
^ For more discussion on contrasts see John L. Allen, Jr. in Pope Hopefuls
[edit]References

Pius X (25 December 1904). "Vacante Sede Apostolica". Apostolic constitution. Pii X Pontificis Maximi Acta. 3. (1908) pp. 239–288.
Piux XI (1 March 1922). "Cum Proxime". Motu proprio. AAS. 14. (1922) pp. 145–146.
Pius XI (25 March 1935). "Quae Divinitus". Apostolic constitution. AAS. 27 (1935) pp. 97–113.
Paul VI (15 August 1967). Regimini Ecclesiae Universae (in Latin). Apostolic constitution. AAS. 59. (1967) pp. 885–928. Vatican City.
John Paul II (28 June 1988). Pastor Bonus. Apostolic constitution. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.
Beal, John P.; Coriden, James A.; Green, Thomas J., eds. (2000). New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press International. ISBN 978-0809105021.
Burkle-Young, Francis A. (1999). Passing the Keys: Modern Cardinals, Conclaves, and the Election of the Next Pope. New York: The Derrydale Press. ISBN 978-1568331300.
Kurtz, Johann Heinrich (1889). Church History 1. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. ISBN 978-0217339285.* Levillain, Philippe; O'Malley, John W., eds. (2002). "The Papacy: An Encyclopedia". Routledge. ISBN 978-0415922289.
Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312294632.
Colomer, Josep M.; McLean, Iain (1998). "Electing Popes. Approval Balloting with Qualified-Majority Rule". Journal of Interdisciplinary History (MIT Press) 29 (1): 1–22.
Duffy, Eamon (2006). Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (3rd ed.). Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300115970.
Guruge, Anura (2010). The Next Pope After Pope Benedict XVI. WOWNH LLC. ISBN 978-0615353722.
Pastor, Ludwig von. "History of the Papacy, Conclaves in the 16th century; Reforms of Pope Gregory XV, papal bulls: Aeterni Patris (1621) and Decet Romanum Pontificem (1622)".
Reese, T. J. (1996). "Revolution in Papal Elections". America 174 (12): 4.
Wintle, W. J. (June 1903). "How the Pope is Elected". The London Magazine.
"Papal Conclave" Catholic Almanac (2012). Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor.
"Inside the Vatican: National Geographic Goes Behind the Public Facade". National Geographic Channel. 8 April 2004.
"How the Pope is Elected". ReligionFacts.com.
[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Papal conclave
Conclave infographic
Papal elections and conclaves by century
Notes on Papal Elections and Conclaves from 1073
Conclave Bibliography
Short video "How Do They Choose the Pope?"
Italian documentary on YouTube (English subtitled)
The Conclave in history - Part 1 of 3
The Conclave in history - Part 2 of 3
The Conclave in history - Part 3 of 3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conclave_capitulation

Conclave capitulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Pope Innocent VI, the first Pope to agree to a capitulation, and the first to disregard one
A conclave capitulation is a capitulation drawn up by the College of Cardinals during a papal conclave, attempting to constrain the actions of the Pope elected by the conclave. Generally, all cardinals would swear to uphold it if elected Pope, and the capitulation would be finished before the first scrutiny (ballot).[1] Capitulations were part and parcel of a strategy of the College of Cardinals to limit papal supremacy and to "make the Church an oligarchy instead of a monarchy."[2]

Contents  [hide]
1 History
2 List of conclave capitulations
3 References
4 Further reading
5 Notes
[edit]History

The College had made informal attempts to influence the actions of Popes before drafting formal capitulations.[3] The first capitulation was drafted in the conclave of 1352, which elected, Pope Innocent VI,[4][5] and most conclaves for the next 300 years produced similar documents.[6]

In 1353, Innocent VI declared the first capitulation invalid with his Apostolic Constitution, Sollicitudo, referencing a Constitution of Pope Gregory X, Contingit,[5] prohibiting papal conclaves from dealing with issues other than the election of a Pope. This trend would continue for most future capitulations, which were generally disregarded.[6] For this reason, papal historian Frederic Baumgartner calls capitulations "an exercise in futility."[7] Another papal historian, Van Dyke, surmises that by the election of Pope Sixtus IV (1471), "all the Popes for forty years had signed and promptly broken" the "Capitulation of the Conclave."[8] Jugie considers the "regular recourse to capitulation" to be "above all, an admission of weakness."[4]

Although not the last capitulation, that of the conclave of 1513 (which elected Pope Leo X) was a turning point for papal supremacy and attempts to control it through formal treaties; never again did the College attempt to limit its size through capitulations; although individual cardinals remained powerful, the College as a whole never regained its power as the "senate" of the Church.[9]

In 1676, Pope-elect Innocent XI made the College swear to the capitulation that had been drafted by the previous conclave before accepting his election.[10]

Pope John Paul II's 1996 Constitution Universi Dominici Gregis banned the defunct practice of conclave capitulations along with the papal veto, another conclave practice which had already been de facto eliminated.[11]

"I likewise forbid the Cardinals before the election to enter into any stipulations, committing themselves of common accord to a certain course of action should one of them be elevated to the Pontificate. These promises too, should any in fact be made, even under oath, I also declare null and void."[12]

[edit]List of conclave capitulations

Conclave year Pope elected Terms Notes
1352[6] Innocent VI College of Cardinals limited to 20; no new cardinals until only 16 remained
Two-thirds of College needed to approve creating, excommunicating, depriving of suffrage, or reducing the property or revenue of cardinals, or to request subsidies from sovereigns or national clergies
College granted veto power of papal decisions and policies
All papal revenue shared with College First conclave capitulation[4]
Declared invalid by Innocent VI in 1353
1431[3] Eugene IV Half of papal revenue was to be shared with the College of Cardinals
No major issues were to be decided without the consent of the College Eugene IV issues a bull to put the capitulation into effect, but later withdrew it
Attempted to undo the reforms of Pope Martin V, which had deprived the College of control of church revenues[13]
1458[14] Pius II Welfare for the poorer cardinals; and a crusade against the Ottoman Turks
1464[15][16] Paul II Continue the crusading war against the Turks
Leave Rome only with the consent of the majority of cardinals; Italy with the consent of all
College of Cardinals limited to 24
New Pope limited to one cardinal-nephew
Creation of cardinals or advancement of benefices required the consent of the College Similar to 1431 and 1454 capitulations
Most of the three-day conclave was spent drafting the capitulation[17]
Cardinal Trevisan did not subscribe
Paul II created three cardinal-nephews
1471[18] Sitxus IV Continue the crusading war against the Turks Fewer limitations on papal power
Frontrunner Cardinal Basilios Bessarion fell out of favor by rejecting the capitulation[19]
1484[20] Innocent VIII Cardinals protected from secular rulers from retaliation related to the conclave
New Pope limited to one cardinal-nephew
College of Cardinals limited to 24
1492[21] Alexander VI Limits on the creation of new cardinals No other terms known
August–September 1503[22] Pius III Papal stipend of 2,400 ducats a year for cardinals with annual income less than 6,000 ducats
General council was to be held within two years, and every five years thereafter[23] College of Cardinals not limited to 24
October 1503[24] Julius II None Shortest conclave ever
1513[25] Leo X College of Cardinals limited to 24[26]
Continue the crusading war against the Turks without taxing cardinals
Reformation of the Roman Curia along the unfinished terms of Julius II
Roman Curia was not to leave Rome
Two-thirds of College required to close the Lateran Council,[26] to impeach or nominate a cardinal, nominate a legate a latere, to confer certain ecclesiastical offices (Julius II had excommunicated four cardinals[27])
Laity mostly excluded from governing of Papal States
Secret articles conferred benefits on cardinals:
200 ducat monthly allowance to a cardinal with annual income less than 6000
Cardinals could not be appointed legate without their consent
Benefices of St. Peter and St. John the Lateran could only be conferred on Roman citizens Imperial Ambassador considered the capitulation unlikely to be followed as it would make the cardinal elected only "half a Pope"
Slightly unreliable copy found in diary of Paris de Grassis
Leo X's violation of the capitulation marked the end of attempts to limit the size of the College or authority of Popes through capitulations; College was transformed from a "senate" to a group of advisers[9]
1522[7] Adrian VI Unknown Called "an exercise in futility as always" by Baumgartner[7]
1549-1550[28] Julius III Similar to that of 1523 Ippolito II d'Este delayed negotiations on the capitulation for three days in an attempt to buy time for more French cardinals to reach the conclave
Drafted by six cardinals elected from the College[29]
1559[30] Pius IV Pope prohibited from waging war on a Catholic prince (as Pope Paul IV had done with Spain)
Lateran Council was to be reconvened
1585[31] Sixtus V Continue the crusading war against the Turks, make peace with Catholic monarchs, complete the construction of St. Peters (which had been ongoing for seven decades) Little mention of privileges or number of cardinals
September 1590[32] Urban VII None known
1669-1670[10] Clement X Reform of the clergy, independence from secular rulers, restoration of adviserial role of cardinals
1676[10] Innocent XI Same as that of 1670 Unique in that Pope-elect made cardinals swear to the previous capitulation before accepting the papacy
[edit]References

Baumgartner, Frederic J. 2003. Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29463-8.
Levillain, Philippe, ed. 2002. The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92228-3.
Pastor, Ludwig. 1908. The History of the Popes. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.
Setton, Kenneth Meyer. 1984. The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571: The 13th & 14th Centuries. DIANE. ISBN 0-87169-114-0.
Van Dyke, Paul. 1897. The Age of the Renascence. The Christian Literature Co.
Walsh, Michael. 2003. The Conclave: A Sometimes Secret and Occasionally Bloody History of Papal Elections. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1-58051-135-X.
[edit]Further reading

Archivo Segreto Vaticano, Conclavi di vari Pontifici, da Pio II a Innocente X, fol. 132 ff. Capitulation texts for the 22 conclaves between 1503 and 1644.
[edit]Notes

^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. xiii.
^ Van Dyke, 1897, p. 172.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 68.
^ a b c Jugie, Pierre. Levillain, ed. 2002. "Cardinal." pp. 241-242.
^ a b  "Episcopal and Pontifical Capitulations" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ a b c Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 52-54.
^ a b c Baumgartner, 2003, p. 95.
^ Van Dyke, 1897, p. 198.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 94.
^ a b c Baumgartner, 2003, p. 162.
^ Walsh, 2003, p. 163.
^ Universi Dominici Gregis.
^ Walsh, 2003, p. 107.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 73.
^ Burkle-Young, Francis A. 1998. "The election of Pope Paul II (1464)."
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 78-79.
^ Walsh, 2003, p. 109.
^ Burkle-Young, Francis A. 1998. "The election of Pope Sixtus IV (1471)."
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 79.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 82.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_monarchy

Elective monarchy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically it is not uncommon for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time, or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.

Contents  [hide]
1 Evolution of elective monarchies
2 Historical examples
2.1 Europe
2.1.1 Greece
2.1.2 Rome
2.1.3 Serbia
2.1.4 Holy Roman Empire
2.1.5 Poland-Lithuania
2.1.6 Venice
2.1.7 Malta
2.1.8 Macedonia
2.1.9 Other examples
2.2 Africa
2.3 Asia and Oceania
2.4 The Americas
3 Election in hereditary monarchies
4 Current uses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
[edit]Evolution of elective monarchies

Arguably the world's oldest method to determine succession was for a military leader to ascend to power through some sort of election. As the kingdoms grew larger and the societies became less egalitarian, the right to vote was restricted to an ever smaller portion of the population (for example local chieftains and/or the nobility).

Many, if not most, kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced hereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within the royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession. Hereditary systems probably came into being in order to ensure greater stability and continuity,[citation needed] since the election and the period of interregnum associated with it had often been an opportunity for ambitious and powerful candidates to resort to violent or coercive means to achieve the throne. In fact, the problem of interregna is typical for monarchy in general, and has only been ameliorated (with a varying degree of success) by the new principle of succession.

Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent.

[edit]Historical examples

[edit]Europe
[edit]Greece
The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ecclesia of democracies, the council of all free citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.

[edit]Rome
In the ancient Kingdom of Rome, the kings were elected by the Assemblies. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in the Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both Roman and Byzantine, although in practice the empire was an absolute monarchy. Therefore the office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with the election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate) and heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. In order to bypass this prohibition and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that the throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise.

[edit]Serbia
In medieval Serbia a strong level of collective parliamentarism was being evolved, which elected the Prince. The rulers often in respect to tradition remained a member of the dynasty, even more so with the recognition as a Kingdom in 1077 and the title's restoration after loss in 1217 which strengthened the Monarch's authority, however they were elected all the way until even the Imperial period. It was only in the Byzantine-modelled later Serbian Despotate that the monarchy was de facto transferred into a hereditary monarchy.

[edit]Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy (although it eventually became unofficially hereditary);[1] after the 15th century, the emperor was elected by a small council of nobles called prince-electors from within the Hapsburg family. Most of the electoral seats were hereditary (some were held by clerics, so-called archbishop-electors). Archbishop-electors and other prince-(arch)bishops were bishops, who were usually elected by the cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) a territory of imperial immediacy, which usually comprised a part of their diocesan territory. Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too. The same holds true for prince-abbeys, whose prince-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a college of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in a pertaining territory.

[edit]Poland-Lithuania


The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power. Golden Liberty. The Royal Election of 1573, by Jan Matejko
In Poland, after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council; gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the szlachta (Polish nobility). Kings of Poland and Grand Princes of Lithuania during the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) were elected by gatherings of crowds of nobles at a field in Wola, today a neighbourhood of Warsaw. Since in Poland all sons of a noble were nobles, and not only the eldest, every one of an estimated 500,000 nobles could potentially have participated in such elections in person - by far the widest franchise of any European country at the time. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex (usually in person of the primate of Poland). This unique Polish election was termed the free election (wolna elekcja).

[edit]Venice
The Venetian Republic employed an elaborate system whereby a Great Council, consisting of over 2000 Venetian aristocrats, elected a head of government, known as a doge, who served for life. The Republic was thus controlled by the city's wealthy noble elite.

[edit]Malta
In 1800, leaders in Malta drafted a Declaration of Rights which was presented to the British Admiral Sir Alexander Ball, stating that they agreed to come "under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free people, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" - regarding the rule of the British King preferable to that of Napoleon's France and of the Knights of Malta, the two other choices available to them at the time. The Declaration further stated that "his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power...if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control."[2]

[edit]Macedonia
A short-lived autonomous monarchy during World War II, the Principality of Pindus and Voivodship of Macedonia also was an elective monarchy.

[edit]Other examples
A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot), Visigothic Spain, and medieval Scandinavia and in the Principality of Transylvania. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II of France.

At the start of the 20th century, the first monarchs of several newly independent nations were elected by parliaments: Norway is the prime example. Previously, following precedent set in newly independent Greece, new nations without a well-established hereditary royal family, often chose their own monarchs from among the established royal families of Europe, rather than elevate a member of the local power establishment, in the hope that a stable hereditary monarchy would eventually emerge from the process. The first king of Belgium, as well as the now-deposed royal families of Greece, Bulgaria, Albania (unsuccessfully) and Romania, were originally appointed in this manner.

[edit]Africa
In Africa, the Mali Empire functioned as both a constitutional and elective monarchy. The mansa (emperor) had to be approved by the Gbara or Great Assembly, despite hereditary claims. The Kingdom of Kongo was a purer example of an elective monarchy, where blood claims had even less pull. Nobles elected a king's successor, and it was common for the successor to be of a different family as his predecessor. This form of elective monarchy existed in the kingdom from its inception in around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century.

[edit]Asia and Oceania
The ancient Korean kingdom of Silla elected its first king by a conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC; later, the monarchy of Silla became hereditary in nature.

In the Mongol Empire, the Great Khan was chosen by the Kurultai.

In the Islamic World the Caliphs, successors to Muhammad, were originally elected by consensus of the community. The first four Caliphs were elected in this fashion as Sunni Muslims believed Muhammad had originally intended before Muawiyah, the fifth caliph, turned the Caliphate into what is known as the Umayyad Dynasty, a hereditary monarchy. In Sunni Islam, the first four elected caliphs were remembered as the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. They were elected by a process known as Shura.

Other monarchs, such as the former Shah of Iran, have been required to undergo a parliamentary vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the throne.

In 1858, the central tribes of North Island elected Potatau te Wherowhero as their monarch. The Tainui tribal elders have continued this tradition and the New Zealand Maori Kingitanga movement alive to the present.

[edit]The Americas
An attempt to create an elective monarchy in the United States failed. Alexander Hamilton argued in a long speech before the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that the President of the United States should be an elective monarch, ruling for "good behavior" (i.e., for life, unless impeached) and with extensive powers. Hamilton believed that elective monarchs had sufficient power domestically to resist foreign corruption, yet there was enough domestic control over their behavior to prevent tyranny at home.[3] His proposal was resoundingly voted down in favor of a four-year term with the possibility of reelection. In his later defense of the Constitution in the Federalist Papers, he often hints that a lifetime executive might be better, even as he praises the system with the four-year term.

The Empire of Haiti, established in 1804, was also elective.

[edit]Election in hereditary monarchies

In a hereditary monarchy, election may occasionally be used to fill a vacant throne. For example, the royal family may become extinct; depending on how precisely the succession to the throne is defined in law, several candidates with equally, or almost equally, strong claims could emerge, with an election being held to choose between them. This differs from a formally elective monarchy in that it is an extraordinary measure, and with the new monarch the succession again becomes hereditary.

Alternatively, the monarch may be deposed, as in a revolution. While sometimes a monarch may be forced to abdicate in favour of his or her heir, on other occasions the royal family as a whole has been rejected, the throne going to an elected candidate. Examples include:

John of England, chosen by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother, Richard I because the heir by strict primogeniture, Arthur of Brittany was a child at that time.
Henry IV of England, chosen by Parliament to replace Richard II. Richard was childless, and the Earl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led the revolt against Richard.
Michael of Russia, chosen by a Zemsky Sobor (national assembly) after the extinction of the Rurikid dynasty and the end of the Time of Troubles. The resulting Romanov dynasty was an old boyar house with the close ties to the former royalty, and Michael's father, Feodor Romanov, was at the time a Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia under the monastic name of Filaret, in effect holding a position of interrex. Later, Patriarch Filaret, a skilled politician in his own right, became effectively a co-ruler and sometimes a regent for his weak and not very healthy son.
William III and Mary II of England, chosen by Parliament to replace James II. While Mary was James' daughter, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sister Anne, the male descendants of James II were explicitly bypassed in the orders of succession of the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
John I, then Master of Aviz, was elected by the Council of the Kingdom King of Portugal on 6 April 1385 in the aftermath of 1383–1385 Crisis, his half-brother Ferdinand I had died without a male heir in October 1383, strenuous efforts were made to secure the throne for Princess Beatrice, Ferdinand's only daughter and Queen consort of Castile and León or her uncles Infante John, Duke of Valencia de Campos and Infante Denis, Lord of Cifuentes, but the Council elected the younger and yet illegitimate son of Peter I.
Louis-Philippe of France, elected King during the July Revolution.
[edit]Current uses

Currently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:

Malaysia, where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of State) is elected to a five-year term. Nine hereditary rulers from the Malay States form a Council of Rulers who will determine the next Agong via a secret ballot. The position has to date been de facto rotated amongst the State rulers, originally based on seniority.
Additionally, the Malaysian state of Negeri Sembilan is itself an elective monarchy, where the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan is selected by a council of ruling chiefs.
The Sultan of Perak is selected form amongst the most senior male princes descending from the 18th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Ahmadin. The Sultan, Raja Muda (Crown Prince), and Raja Di-Hilir (Deputy Crown Prince) are selected by the Dewan Undangan Negeri Perak. A son of the reigning Sultan cannot become Raja Muda if there is a more senior prince descendent from the previous Sultan; this is possible should the senior prince relinquish his right to become Raja Muda.
The Kingdom of Cambodia, in which kings are chosen for a life term by The Royal Council of the Throne from candidates of royal blood.
The Holy See, where the Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals.
In addition, Andorra could be considered a semi-elective principality. Andorra's two heads of state are Spain's Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and, since 1589, the king of France. As the French monarchy has long since been eliminated, the position of co-prince of Andorra falls to the democratically elected President of France. However, the Andorran authorities or people have no say in the election of the President of France, leaving Andorra in the unique position of having a monarch who is democratically elected by the citizenry of another state.

Swaziland also has a form of quasi-elective monarchy. In Swaziland, no king can appoint his successor. Instead, the royal family decides which of his wives shall be "Great wife" and "Indovukazi" (She-Elephant / Queen Mother). The son of this "Great Wife" will automatically become the next king. The eldest son is never appointed successor as he has other ceremonial roles.

In Nigeria, traditional rulers (or "royal fathers", e.g., the Adebonojo, Eze) are usually chosen by a council of kingmakers.

The succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia, while hereditary, is not determined by a succession law but rather by consensus of the House of Saud as to who will be Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia; consensus may change depending on the Crown Prince's actions. In effect, this makes the Saudi monarchy elective within the House of Saud, as the king's eldest son has not become Crown Prince since the death of King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud in 1953.

The President of the United Arab Emirates is a de facto hereditary position belonging to the Emir of Abu Dhabi. Thus, although elected by the Supreme Council, the president is essentially hereditary - the emir of Abu Dhabi holds the position.

In New Zealand, the Maori monarch, head of the Maori King Movement, is elected by the kaumatua of various New Zealand iwi (tribes). However, every Maori monarch to date had been succeeded by a son or daughter, making the position hereditary in effect. The traditional heads of the three regions of Wallis and Futuna (territories of the French Republic) are similarly elected.

Samoa was an elective monarchy from the first day of independence in 1962. From 1962 on, Samoa had two heads of state, Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole and Malietoa Tanumafili II. Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole died in 1963, and Malietoa Tanumafili II was the sole head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) of Samoa until his death in 2007. The Samoan Constitution stipulates the successor to the two original heads of state are to be elected for five-year terms by the Fono, the parliament of Samoa. The elected successor was one of Samoa's four paramount chiefs, Tufuga Efi. However, articles 18 and 45 of the Constitution provide, respectively, that any Member of Parliament may be elected head of state, and that any Samoan citizen may be elected to Parliament,[4] and Samoa is now considered a parliamentary republic. However, the head of state is still referred to as "His Highness",[5] and the Constitution does not outwardly declare that the form of government has been changed.

[edit]See also

Elections of Holy Roman Emperors
Royal elections in Poland
Papal election
Papal conclave, 2005
President for life
Tanistry
[edit]References

^ "The Emperor: Qualifications". The Holy Roman Empire. Heraldica.
^ Holland, James (2003). Fortress Malta: An Island Under Siege, 1940–1943. Miramax Books. ISBN 1-4013-5186-7.
^ Hamilton, Alexander (1962). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Volume 9. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08903-1.
^ Constitution of the Independent State of Samoa
^ Official website of the head of state of Samoa
[edit]External links

Worsøe, Hans H.. "Official Denmark - The Royal House". The Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2009-02-27. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
"The Noble Republic, 1572-1795". Poland - The Historical Setting. Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
Jedruch, Jacek (1998). Constitutions, Elections and Legislatures of Poland, 1493-1993. EJJ Books. ISBN 0-7818-0637-2. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
"Norway's elective monarchy". The New York Times. November 16, 1905. Retrieved 2008-01-03.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_papal_elections

List of papal elections
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The first papal election following In Nomine Domini (1059) took place in San Pietro in Vincoli ("Saint Peter in Chains") rather than Old St. Peter's Basilica due to intense secular opposition to the new papal selection process.
There have been 110 papal elections that have produced popes currently recognized by the Catholic Church as legitimate. There was no fixed process for papal succession before 1059 and popes were often selected with substantial secular involvement, if not outright appointment. Since the promulgation of In nomine Domini (1059), however, suffrage has been limited to the College of Cardinals.[1]

Papal elections since 1276 have taken the form of papal conclaves, which are elections that follow a set of rules and procedures developed in Ubi periculum (1274) and later papal bulls; observance of the conclave varied until 1294, but all papal elections since have followed relatively similar conclave procedures.

Although the cardinals have historically gathered at a handful of other locations within Rome and beyond, only five elections since 1455 have been held outside the Apostolic Palace.[2] Twenty-eight papal elections have been held outside Rome, in: Terracina (1088), Cluny (1119), Velletri (1181), Verona (1185), Ferrara (October 1187), Pisa (December 1187), Perugia (1216, 1264–1265, 1285, 1292–1294, 1304–1305), Anagni (1243), Naples (1254, 1294), Viterbo (1261, 1268–1271, July 1276, August–September 1276, 1277, 1281–1282), Arezzo (January 1276), Carpentras/Lyon (1314–1316), Avignon (1334, 1342, 1352, 1362, 1370), Konstanz (1417) and Venice (1799–1800). Three elections moved between locations while in progress: the elections of 1268–71, 1292–94, and 1314–16.

Contents  [hide]
1 Papal elections
2 Notes
3 References
4 External links
[edit]Papal elections

Contents
1059–1100 · 1100–1200 · 1200–1300 · 1300–1400 · 1400–1500 · 1500–1600 · 1600–1700 · 1700–1800 · 1800–1900 · 1900–2000 · 2000–present
Elections that elected papal claimants currently regarded by the Catholic Church as antipopes are italicized.


SS. Pietro e Cesareo in Terracina, the site of the first papal election outside Rome


The 1119 papal election took place in Cluny Abbey as a result of the expulsion of Pope Gelasius II from Rome by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor following the Investiture Controversy.


Senator Matteo Rosso Orsini confined the cardinals to the Septizodium during the 1241 election.


The Magistrates of Viterbo removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo during the 1268–71 election and removed two cardinal electors from the Palace during the 1280–81 election.


The Palais des Papes, the site of most papal conclaves during the Avignon Papacy


The Konstanz Minster, the site of the Council of Constance, the last papal election outside Italy


The 1492 conclave was the first held in the Sistine Chapel of the Apostolic Palace, the site of all conclaves since 1878.


All but five papal conclaves since 1455 have been held in the Apostolic Palace.


The papal conclave, 1799–1800 was held in San Giorgio Monastery in Venice, the last papal election site outside of Rome.


The Quirinal Palace was the site of the four conclaves prior to the seizure of Rome by the forces of the Italian unification.
Election Elected Pope Location Ref(s)
Papal election, 1061 Pope Alexander II San Pietro in Vincoli (Rome) [3]
Papal election, 1073 Pope Gregory VII San Pietro in Vincoli (Rome) [4]
Papal election, 1086 Pope Victor III S. Lucia in Sepitisolio (Rome) [5]
Papal election, 1088 Pope Urban II SS. Pietro e Cesareo (Terracina) [6]
Papal election, 1099 Pope Paschal II Basilica di San Clemente (Rome) [6]
Papal election, 1118 Pope Gelasius II Benedictine monastery on Palatine Hill (Rome) [7]
Papal election, 1119 Pope Callixtus II Cluny Abbey (France) [8]
Papal election, 1124 Pope Honorius II San Pancrazio (Rome) [9]
Papal election, 1130 Pope Innocent II SS. Andrea e Gregorio in clivo scauri (Rome) [10]
Papal election, 1130 Antipope Anacletus II San Marco (Rome) [10]
Papal election, 1143 Pope Celestine II Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome) [11]
Papal election, 1144 Pope Lucius II (Rome) [11]
Papal election, 1145 Pope Eugene III San Cesareo in Palatio (Rome) [11]
Papal election, 1153 Pope Anastasius IV (Rome) [11]
Papal election, 1154 Pope Adrian IV Old St. Peter's Basilica (Rome) [12]
Papal election, 1159 Pope Alexander III Old St. Peter's Basilica (Rome) [13]
Papal election, 1159 Antipope Victor IV Old St. Peter's Basilica (Rome) [13]
Papal election, 1181 Pope Lucius III (Rome) [14]
Papal election, 1185 Pope Urban III (Verona) [14]
Papal election, October 1187 Pope Gregory VIII (Ferrara) [15]
Papal election, December 1187 Pope Clement III (Pisa) [16]
Papal election, 1191 Pope Celestine III (Rome) [16]
Papal election, 1198 Pope Innocent III Septizodium (Rome) [16]
Papal election, 1216 Pope Honorius III Palazzo delle Canoniche (Perugia) [16]
Papal election, 1227 Pope Gregory IX Septizodium (Rome) [17]
Papal election, 1241 Pope Celestine IV Septizodium (Rome) [18]
Papal election, 1243 Pope Innocent IV (Anagni) [19]
Papal election, 1254 Pope Alexander IV (Naples) [20]
Papal election, 1261 Pope Urban IV Viterbo Cathedral [20]
Papal election, 1264–65 Pope Clement IV Palazzo delle Canoniche (Perugia) [21]
Papal election, 1268–71 Pope Gregory X Viterbo Cathedral
Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo [22]
Papal conclave, January 1276 Pope Innocent V Arezzo Cathedral [23]
Papal conclave, July 1276 Pope Adrian V Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome) [24][25]
Papal election, September 1276 Pope John XXI Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo [26]
Papal election, 1277 Pope Nicholas III Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo [26]
Papal election, 1280–81 Pope Martin IV Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo [27]
Papal election, 1285 Pope Honorius IV Palazzo delle Canoniche (Perugia) [28]
Papal election, 1287–88 Pope Nicholas IV Corte Savella, near Santa Sabina (Rome) [29]
Papal election, 1292–94 Pope Celestine V Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore (Rome)
Santa Maria sopra Minerva (Rome)
Palazzo delle Canoniche (Perugia) [30]
Papal conclave, 1294 Pope Boniface VIII Castel Nuovo (Naples) [31]
Papal conclave, 1303 Pope Benedict XI Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome) [32]
Papal conclave, 1304–05 Pope Clement V Perugia Cathedral [33]
Papal conclave, 1314–16 Pope John XXII Carpentras Cathedral
Dominican house in Lyon [34]
Papal conclave, 1334 Pope Benedict XII Palais des Papes (Avignon) [35]
Papal conclave, 1342 Pope Clement VI Palais des Papes (Avignon) [36]
Papal conclave, 1352 Pope Innocent VI Palais des Papes (Avignon) [37]
Papal conclave, 1362 Pope Urban V Palais des Papes (Avignon) [38]
Papal conclave, 1370 Pope Gregory XI Palais des Papes (Avignon) [39]
Papal conclave, 1378 Pope Urban VI Old St. Peter's Basilica (Rome) [40]
Avignon papal conclave, 1378 Antipope Clement VII (Fondi) [40]
Papal conclave, 1389 Pope Boniface IX Apostolic Palace (Rome) [41]
Avignon papal conclave, 1394 Antipope Benedict XIII Palais des Papes (Avignon) [42]
Papal conclave, 1404 Pope Innocent VII (Rome) [43]
Papal conclave, 1406 Pope Gregory XII (Rome) [44]
Council of Pisa, 1409 Antipope Alexander V (Pisa) [45]
Pisan papal conclave, 1410 Antipope John XXIII San Petronio Basilica (Bologna) [46]
Council of Constance, 1417 Pope Martin V Konstanz Minster [47]
Avignon papal conclave, 1423 Antipope Clement VIII (Peñíscola) [48]
Papal conclave, 1431 Pope Eugene IV Santa Maria sopra Minerva (Rome) [49][50]
Council of Florence, 1439 Antipope Felix V Basel Münster [51]
Papal conclave, 1447 Pope Nicholas V Santa Maria sopra Minerva (Rome) [50][52]
Papal conclave, 1455 Pope Callixtus III Apostolic Palace (Rome) [50][53]
Papal conclave, 1458 Pope Pius II Apostolic Palace (Rome) [2][54]
Papal conclave, 1464 Pope Paul II Apostolic Palace (Rome), Capella Parva (voting) and Capella Magna (cardinals' cells) [50][55]
Papal conclave, 1471 Pope Sixtus IV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [56]
Papal conclave, 1484 Pope Innocent VIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [57]
Papal conclave, 1492 Pope Alexander VI Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [58]
Papal conclave, September 1503 Pope Pius III Apostolic Palace (Rome) [59]
Papal conclave, October 1503 Pope Julius II Apostolic Palace (Rome) [60]
Papal conclave, 1513 Pope Leo X Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [50][61]
Papal conclave, 1521–22 Pope Adrian VI Apostolic Palace (Rome) [62]
Papal conclave, 1523 Pope Clement VII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [63]
Papal conclave, 1534 Pope Paul III Apostolic Palace (Rome), Cappella Parva [50][64]
Papal conclave, 1549–50 Pope Julius III Apostolic Palace (Rome), Cappella Paolina [65]
Papal conclave, April 1555 Pope Marcellus II Apostolic Palace (Rome) [66]
Papal conclave, May 1555 Pope Paul IV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [67]
Papal conclave, 1559 Pope Pius IV Apostolic Palace (Rome), Cappella Paolina [50][68]
Papal conclave, 1565–66 Pope Pius V Apostolic Palace (Rome) [69]
Papal conclave, 1572 Pope Gregory XIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [70]
Papal conclave, 1585 Pope Sixtus V Apostolic Palace (Rome) [71]
Papal conclave, September 1590 Pope Urban VII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [72]
Papal conclave, Autumn 1590 Pope Gregory XIV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [73]
Papal conclave, 1591 Pope Innocent IX Apostolic Palace (Rome) [74]
Papal conclave, 1592 Pope Clement VIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [75]
Papal conclave, March 1605 Pope Leo XI Apostolic Palace (Rome) [76]
Papal conclave, May 1605 Pope Paul V Apostolic Palace (Rome) [77]
Papal conclave, 1621 Pope Gregory XV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [78]
Papal conclave, 1623 Pope Urban VIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [79]
Papal conclave, 1644 Pope Innocent X Apostolic Palace (Rome) [80]
Papal conclave, 1655 Pope Alexander VII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [81]
Papal conclave, 1667 Pope Clement IX Apostolic Palace (Rome) [82]
Papal conclave, 1669–70 Pope Clement X Apostolic Palace (Rome) [83]
Papal conclave, 1676 Pope Innocent XI Apostolic Palace (Rome) [84]
Papal conclave, 1689 Pope Alexander VIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [85]
Papal conclave, 1691 Pope Innocent XII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [86]
Papal conclave, 1700 Pope Clement XI Apostolic Palace (Rome) [87]
Papal conclave, 1721 Pope Innocent XIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [88]
Papal conclave, 1724 Pope Benedict XIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [89]
Papal conclave, 1730 Pope Clement XII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [90]
Papal conclave, 1740 Pope Benedict XIV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [91]
Papal conclave, 1758 Pope Clement XIII Apostolic Palace (Rome) [92]
Papal conclave, 1769 Pope Clement XIV Apostolic Palace (Rome) [93]
Papal conclave, 1774–75 Pope Pius VI Apostolic Palace (Rome) [94]
Papal conclave, 1799–1800 Pope Pius VII San Giorgio Monastery (Venice) [95]
Papal conclave, 1823 Pope Leo XII Quirinal Palace (Rome) [96]
Papal conclave, 1829 Pope Pius VIII Quirinal Palace (Rome) [97]
Papal conclave, 1830–31 Pope Gregory XVI Quirinal Palace (Rome) [98]
Papal conclave, 1846 Pope Pius IX Quirinal Palace (Rome) [99]
Papal conclave, 1878 Pope Leo XIII Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [100]
Papal conclave, 1903 Pope Pius X Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [101]
Papal conclave, 1914 Pope Benedict XV Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [102]
Papal conclave, 1922 Pope Pius XI Apostolic Palace (Rome), Sistine Chapel [103]
Papal conclave, 1939 Pope Pius XII Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [104]
Papal conclave, 1958 Pope John XXIII Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [105]
Papal conclave, 1963 Pope Paul VI Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [106]
Papal conclave, August 1978 Pope John Paul I Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [107]
Papal conclave, October 1978 Pope John Paul II Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [107]
Papal conclave, 2005 Pope Benedict XVI Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [108]
Papal conclave, 2013 TBD Apostolic Palace (Vatican City), Sistine Chapel [109]
[edit]Notes

^ Johannes Baptist Sägmüller, "Cardinal" in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913).
^ a b Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). ""I Will Observe Absolute and Perpetual Secrecy:" The Historical Background of the Rigid Secrecy Found in Papal Elections". Catholic Historical Review. Vol. 89, Issue 2. pp. 165–181.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 19–24.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 24–25.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 25–26.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 26.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 26–27.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 27–28.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 28–29.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 29–31.
^ a b c d Baumgartner, 2003, p. 31.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 31–32.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 32–33.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 33.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 33–34.
^ a b c d Baumgartner, 2003, p. 34.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 34–35.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 35.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 35–36.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 36.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 36–37.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 37–39.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 40.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 40–41.
^ Walsh, Michael J. (2003). The Conclave. ISBN 1-58051-135-X. p. 86
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, p. 41.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 42.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 42–43.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 43.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 43–45.
^ Baumgatner, 2003, pp. 45–46.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 47–48.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 48–49.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 49–50.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 50–51.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 51.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 52–53.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 54.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 54–55.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 55–60.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 60–61.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 61.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 62.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 62–63.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 63.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 63–64.
^ Baumgatner, 2003, pp. 64–66.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 67.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 68–69.
^ a b c d e f g Chambers, DS. 1978. "Papal Conclaves and Prophetic Mystery in the Sistine Chapel". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 41: pp. 322–326.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 69.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 70.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 71–73.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 73–77.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 77–79.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 79–81.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 81–83.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 84–85.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 86–89.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 89.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 91–93.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 95–98.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 98-101.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 102–103.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 104–110.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 111–112.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 112–113.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 116–120.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 121–123.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 125–126.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 127–130.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 132–134.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 134–135.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 136.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 136–138.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 139–142.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 142.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 143–145.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 147–149.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 153–154.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 155–157.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 157–159.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 159–161.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 161–162.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 163–164.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 164–166.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 167.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 168–170.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 170–171.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 171–173.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 173–175.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 175–176.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 176–178.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 179–180.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 182–184.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 186–187.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 188–189.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 189–190.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 191–193.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 195–199.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 201–204.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 206–208.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 209–210.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 212–213.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 215–218.
^ Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 219–222.
^ a b Baumgartner, 2003, pp. 223–227.
^ Greeley, Andrew M. 2005. The Making of the Pope: 2005. Brown, Little. ISBN 0-316-86149-9.
^ "Conclave to determine new Pope could be held mid-March". Catholic News Service. 13 February 2013.
[edit]References

Baumgartner, Frederic J. 2003. Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29463-8.
[edit]External links

Papal elections and conclaves by century including lists of cardinals known to have attended each conclave
Notes, by J. P. Adams, on Papal Elections and Conclaves from the 11th to the 21st Centuries

[hide] v t e
Papal elections
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_appointment

Papal appointment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


According to Catholic doctrine, Jesus appointed Peter as the first pope.
Papal appointment is the oldest method for the selection of the pope. Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by appointment by secular European rulers or by their predecessors.[1] The later procedures of the papal conclave are in large part designed to constrain the interference of secular rulers which characterized the first millennium of the Roman Catholic Church, and persisted in practices such as the creation of crown-cardinals and the jus exclusivae. Appointment might have taken several forms, with a variety of roles for the laity and civic leaders, Byzantine and Germanic emperors, and noble Roman families.[2] The role of the appointment vis-a-vis the general population and the clergy was prone to vary considerably, with the nomination carrying weight that ranged from near total to a mere suggestion or ratification of a prior election.

The institution has its origins in Ancient Rome, where on more than one occasion the emperor stepped in to resolve disputes over the legitimacy of papal contenders. An important precedent from this period is an edict of Emperor Honorius, issued after a synod he convoked to depose Antipope Eulalius. The power passed to (and grew with) the King of the Ostrogoths, then the Byzantine Emperor (or his delegate, the Exarch of Ravenna). After an interregnum, the Kings of the Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor (whose selection the pope also sometimes had a hand in), generally assumed the role of confirming the results of papal elections. For a period (today known as the "Pornocracy"), the power passed from the Emperor to powerful Roman nobles—the Crescentii and then the Counts of Tusculum.

In many cases, the papal coronation was delayed until the election had been confirmed. Some antipopes were similarly appointed. The practice ended with the conclusion of the Investiture Controversy (c.f. confirmation of bishops) due largely to the efforts of Cardinal Hildebrand (future Pope Gregory VII), who was a guiding force in the selection of his four predecessors, and the 1059 papal bull In Nomine Domini of Pope Nicholas II; some writers consider this practice to be an extreme form of "investiture" in and of itself.[3] According to von Hase et al.:

"All this, however, did not prevent the emperor who appointed the pope and the bishops, from prescribing laws for the church, and governing it according to his own views rather than theirs, whenever the empire was free from internal distractions."[4]
Although the practice was forbidden by the Council of Antioch (341) and the Council of Rome (465), the bishops of Rome, as with other bishops, often exercised a great deal of control over their successor, even after the sixth century.[5] Most popes from the fourth to twelfth century were appointed or confirmed by a secular power.[5]

Contents  [hide]
1 List of papal appointments
1.1 Ancient Rome
1.2 Ostrogoths
1.3 Byzantine
1.3.1 Exarchate of Ravenna
1.4 Byzantine
1.4.1 Exarchate of Ravenna
1.5 Frankish interregnum
1.6 Kings of the Franks/Holy Roman Empire
1.7 Counts of Tusculum
1.8 Holy Roman Empire
1.9 Crescentii
1.10 Counts of Tusculum
1.11 Holy Roman Empire
2 List of anti-papal appointments
3 Notes
4 References
[edit]List of papal appointments

[edit]Ancient Rome
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Jesus, according to Catholic doctrine Peter 30 to 67
(as Head of the Church)
post42/ante57 to 64/67(?)
(as Episcopus Romanus) c.f. Primacy of Simon Peter[6]
None; chosen by dove according to tradition Fabian January 10, 236 to January 20, 250 "While the names of several illustrious and noble persons were being considered, a dove suddenly descended upon the head of Fabian, of whom no one had even thought. To the assembled brethren the sight recalled the Gospel scene of the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Saviour of mankind, and so, divinely inspired, as it were, they chose Fabian with joyous unanimity and placed him in the Chair of Peter."[7]
None; elected during interregnum Cornelius March 6/March 11, 251 to June 253 "About the beginning of March, 251 the persecution slackened, owing to the absence of the emperor, against whom two rivals had arisen. It was possible to assemble sixteen bishops at Rome, and Cornelius was elected though against his will (Cyprian, Ep. lv, 24), "by the judgment of God and of Christ, by the testimony of almost all the clergy, by the vote of the people then present, by the consent of aged priests and of good men [...]"[8]
Valerian* Lucius I June 25, 253 to March 5, 254 "Lucius also was sent into exile soon after his consecration, but in a short time, presumably when Valerian was made emperor, he was allowed to return to his flock."[9]
Valentinian I* Damasus I October 1, 366 to December 11, 384 "Valentinian recognized Damasus and banished (367) Ursinus to Cologne [...]"[10]
Valentinian III Siricius December 11, 384 to November 26, 399 "After the death of Damasus, Siricius was unanimously elected his successor (December, 384) and consecrated bishop probably on 17 December. Ursinus, who had been a rival to Damasus (366), was alive and still maintained his claims. However, the Emperor Valentinian III, in a letter to Pinian (23 Feb., 385), gave his consent to the election that had been held and praised the piety of the newly-elected bishop; consequently no difficulties arose."[11]
Honorius Boniface I December 28/29, 418 to September 4, 422 "The emperor Honorius [...] declared Eulalius excluded from the Holy See, and Boniface at liberty to return to Rome and take up the government of the church [...] Boniface then wrote a letter to the emperor, beseeching him to make an edict which should prevent, in future, the intrigues and cabals which had taken place on the death of a pope, in order to seize upon the bishopric of Rome. Honorius replied to the wishes of the holy father by the following decree: 'If contrary to our desires, your holiness should quit the earth, let all the world know they must abstain from intrigues to be elevated to the papacy; thus, when two ecclesiastics shall be ordained contrary to the rules, neither of them shall be considered as bishop; but only he whose election shall be confirmed anew by the consent of all;' which shows us that the bishop of Rome was elected by the clergy and the people, and consecrated by a bishop, with the consent of the emperor"[12]
"The emperor was deeply indignant at these proceedings and refusing to consider again the claims of Eulalius, recognized Boniface as legitimate pope (3 April, 418). The latter re-entered Rome 10 April and was acclaimed by the people [...]"[13]
Unknown Simplicius March 3, 468 to March 10, 483 "The elevation of the new pope was not attended with any difficulties."[14]
None Gelasius I March 1, 492 to November 21, 496 "On his election to the papacy, Gelasius at once showed his strength of character and his lofty conception of his position by his firmness in dealing with the adherents of Acacius. Despite all the efforts of the otherwise orthodox patriarch, Euphemius of Constantinople, and the threats and wiles by which the Emperor Anastasius tried to obtain recognition from the Apostolic See, Gelasius, though hard-pressed by difficulties at home, would make no peace that compromised in the slightest degree the rights and honor of the Chair of Peter."[15]
Roman Senate Symmachus November 22, 498 to July 19, 514 "Directly after the death of Pope Anastasius II, Symmachus was elected his successor by a majority of the Roman clergy at the Lateran Basilica on 22 November, 498. The election was approved by a part of the Roman senate and he was at once consecrated Bishop of Rome."[16]
[edit]Ostrogoths
On November 22, 498, both Pope Symmachus and Antipope Laurentius were elected pope; both Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I and the Gothic King Theodoric the Great originally supported Laurentius, who was installed in the Lateran Palace, but Symmachus prevailed when Theodoric expelled Laurentius from Rome, fearing that he was too influenced by the Byzantine ruler.[17]

[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Theodoric the Great/Athalaric Felix IV July 13, 526 to September 22, 530 "On Theodoric's recommendation, Felix was elected pope, and his election was confirmed by Athalaric, the successor of Theodoric"[18]
Appointed "for all practical purposes" by Theodoric[19]
Pope Felix III/Athalaric Boniface II September 17, 530 to October 532 Appointment meant to avoid split between "Byzantine" and "Gothic" factions[20]
Athalaric John II January 2, 533 to May 8, 535 During the sede vacante of over two months, "shameless trafficking in sacred things was indulged in. Even sacred vessels were exposed for sale. The matter was brought before the Senate, and before the Arian Ostrogothic Court at Ravenna" (c.f. Senatus Consultum)[21]
Theodahad Agapetus I May 13, 535 to April 22, 536 "Theodahad was well placed to coerce the new pope Agapetus, for he had been elected with his support"[22]
Silverius June 8, 536 to June 20, 537 Legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas[23]
[edit]Byzantine
"We have reached the turning-point in Papal history. There had been a Duke of Rome, resident of the Imperial house on the Palatine; an exercitus Romanus, which comprised the nobles who, however mixed their blood, fabled a descent from the Cornelii and the other Patricians of classic renown; last, but greatest, the Pontifex Maximus held his court with its array of clerics about the Church of the Saviour. And how did he stand to Dukes and nobles? While the Emperor governed, he was a subject, his election not valid till confirmed from the Golden Horn; and the "army," which claimed to be the Roman People, shared in his naming with the "venerable clergy." Now, was the Duke to continue when the Emperor has ceased? If not, the whole of Italy might be absorbed into the Lombard Kingdom, and the Pope, exercising a purely spiritual jurisdiction, would still have been a subject, liable to the military chief at Pavia, whose government he would consecrate but never share."
William Francis Barry, 1902[24]


[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Justinian I Vigilius March 29, 537 to 555 [23] Previously appointed by his successor Pope Boniface II[25]
Pelagius I April 16, 556 to March 4, 561 "Pelagius, as the nominee of Justinian, at once succeeded on his arrival in Rome, but most of the clergy, suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some share in the unlooked-for removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship, and only two bishops and presbyter could be got to take part in his ordination to the pontificate"[26]
John III July 17, 561 to July 13, 574 "At the death of Pelagius I, Rome had been under Byzantine control for many years, and according to the procedure imposed by Constantinople, the name of the elected candidate had to be submitted to the emperor for approval. This explains the long vacancy [...]"[27]
Justin II Benedict I June 2, 575 to June 30, 579 "The ravages of the Lombards rendered it very difficult to communicate with the emperor at Constantinople, who claimed the privilege of confirming the election of the popes. Hence there was a vacancy of nearly eleven months between the death of John III and the arrival of the imperial confirmation of Benedict's election, 2 June, 575."[28]
Tiberius II Constantine Pelagius II November 26, 579 to February 7, 590 "He succeeded Benedict I, when the Lombards were besieging Rome, but his consecration was delayed in the hope of securing the confirmation of the election by the emperor. But the blockade of Rome by the Lombards, and their control of the great thoroughfares was effective and, after four months, he was consecrated (26 Nov., 579)."[29]
Maurice Gregory I September 3, 590 to March 12, 604 "The choice of a successor lay with the clergy and people of Rome, and without any hesitation they elected Gregory [... Gregory] wrote personally to the Emperor Maurice, begging him with all earnestness not to confirm the election. Germanus, prefect of the city, suppresses this letter, however, and sent instead of it the formal schedule of the election. In the interval while awaiting the emperor's reply the business of the vacant see was transacted by Gregory [...] At length, after six months of waiting, came the emperor's confirmation of Gregory's election."[30]
Phocas Sabinian September 13, 604 to February 22, 606 "[...] chosen to succeed Gregory soon after the death of that great pontiff; but as the imperial confirmation of his election did not arrive for some months, he was not consecrated till September."[31]
Boniface III February 19, 607 to November 12, 607 "[...] as apocrisiarius, or legate, to the court of Constantinople, where, by his tact and prudence, he appears to have gained the favourable regard of the Emperor Phocas"[32]
Boniface IV August 25, 608 to May 8, 615 "Boniface obtained leave from the Emperor Phocas [...]"[33]
Heraclius Severinus October 638 to August 2, 640 "Severinus [...] was elected [...] and envoys were at once sent to Constantinople, to obtain the confirmation of his election (Oct., 638). But the emperor, instead of granting the confirmation, ordered Severinus to sign his Ecthesis [...] This the pope-elect refused to do [...] Meanwhile his envoys at Constantinople, [...] finally secured the imperial confirmation."[34]
[edit]Exarchate of Ravenna
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Isaac the Armenian John IV December 24, 640 to October 12, 642 "As John's consecration followed very soon after his election, it is supposed that the papal elections were now confirmed by the exarchs resident at Ravenna."[35]
Theodore I November 24, 642 to May 14, 649 "His election as pope was promptly confirmed by the Exarch of Ravenna, perhaps because he was a Greek, and he was consecrated 24 Nov., 642."[36]
None Martin I July 649 to September 16, 655 "After his election, Martin had himself consecrated without waiting for the imperial confirmation, and soon called a council in the Lateran [...] The Acts with a Greek translation were also sent to the Emperor Constans II."[37]
Theodore I Calliopas Eugene I August 10, 654 to June 2, 657 [38]
None Vitalian July 30, 657 to January 27, 672 "Like his predecessor, Vitalian sought to restore the connection with Constantinople by friendly advances to the Eastern Emperor Constans II (641-668) and to prepare the way for the settlement of the Monothelite controversy. He sent letters (synodica) announcing his elevation by envoys both to the emperor and to Patriarch Peter of Constantinople [...]"[39]
[edit]Byzantine
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Constantine IV Leo II December 681 to July 3, 683 "Though elected pope a few days after the death of St. Agatho (10 June, 681), he was not consecrated till after the lapse of a year and seven months (17 Aug., 682). Under Leo's predecessor St. Agatho, negotiations had been opened between the Holy See and Emperor Constantine Pogonatus concerning the relations of the Byzantine Court to papal elections. Constantine had already promised Agatho to abolish or reduce the tax which for about a century the popes had had to pay to the imperial treasury on the occasion of their consecration, and under Leo's successor he made other changes in what had hitherto been required of the Roman Church at the time of a papal election. In all probability, therefore, it was continued correspondence on this matter which caused the delay of the imperial confirmation of Leo's election, and hence the long postponement of his consecration."[40]
[edit]Exarchate of Ravenna
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Theodore II* Benedict II 683/June 26, 684 to May 8, 685 "To abridge the vacancies of the Holy See which followed the deaths of the popes, he obtained from the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus a decree which either abolished imperial confirmations altogether or made them obtainable from the exarch in Italy."[41]
None John V July 12, 685 to August 2, 686 "The necessity of waiting for the imperial confirmation of papal elections having been abolished by Constantine Pognatus, John was straightway conducted to the Lateran palace as pope."[42]
Theodore II* Conon October 21, 686 to September 22, 687 "He was consecrated (21 October, 686) after notice of his election had been sent to the Exarch of Ravenna, or after it had been confirmed by him."[43]
None Sergius I December 15, 687 to September 8, 701 "While Pope Conon lay dying, the archdeacon Pascal offered the exarch a large sum to bring about his election as his successor. Through the exarch's influence the archdeacon was accordingly elected by a number of people; about the same time another faction elected the archpriest Theodore. The mass of clergy and people, however, set them both aside and chose Sergius, who was duly consecrated."[44]
None John VI March 1, 705 to October 18, 707 "Some time during his reign there came to Rome from Sicily Theophylactus, "chamberlain, patricius, and exarch of Italy". After the treatment which some of his predecessors in the exarchate had meted out to the popes, [...] local militias hurriedly marched to Rome [...] To avoid bloodshed, John sent a number of priests to them, and succeeded in pacifying them; as far at least as the exarch himself was concerned. [...] Taking advantage of this [...] the Lombards renewed their attacks [...] Several towns belonging to the Duchy of Rome were seized, Gisulf advanced as far as "Horrea" Puteoli - or perhaps the "fundus Horrea" at the fifth milestone on the Via Latina. As "there was no one who had power to resist him by force of arms", the pope [...] sent a number of priests furnished with money into the camp of the Lombard duke."[45]
Eutychius* Gregory III March 18, 731 to November 28, 741 "[...] the Romans elected him pope by acclamation, when he was accompanying the funeral procession of his predecessor, 11 February, 731. As he was not consecrated for more than a month after his election, it is presumed that he waited for the confirmation of his election by the exarch at Ravenna."[46]
None Zachary December 3, 741 to March 14/March 22, 752 "After the burial of his predecessor Gregory III on 29 November, 741, he was immediately and unanimously elected pope and consecrated and enthroned on 5 December. [...] Soon after his elevation he notified Constantinople of his election; it is noticeable that his synodica (letter) was not addressed to the iconoclastic Patriarch Anastasius but to the Church of Constantinople."[47]
[edit]Frankish interregnum
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
None Stephen II March 26, 752 to April 26, 757 "He had at once to face the Lombards who were resolved to bring all Italy under their sway. With the capture of Ravenna (751), they had put an end to the power of the Byzantine exarchs and were preparing to seize the Duchy of Rome. In vain did Stephen apply for help to Constantinople [...] He accordingly [...] endeavoured to obtain assistance from Pepin and the Franks. [...] he went himself to Gaul to plead his cause before the Frankish king. Receiving a most favourable reception, he crowned Pepin as King of the Franks [...]"[48]
None Paul I May 29, 757 to June 28, 767 Brother of Stephen II; "While Paul was with his dying brother at the Lateran, a party of the Romans gathered in the house of Archdeacon Theophylact in order to secure the latter's succession to the papal see. However, immediately after the burial of Stephen (died 26 April, 757), Paul was elected by a large majority, and received episcopal consecration on the twenty-ninth of May. Paul continued his predecessor's policy towards the Frankish king, Pepin, and thereby continued the papal supremacy over Rome and the districts of central Italy in opposition to the efforts of the Lombards and the Eastern Empire."[49]
None Stephen III August 1, 767 to January 24, 772 "Paul I was not dead when trouble began about the election of his successor. Toto of Nepi with a body of Tuscans burst into Rome, and, despite the opposition of the primicerius Christopher, forcibly intruded his brother Constantine, a layman, into the chair of Peter (June, 767). In the spring of 768, however, Christopher and his son Sergius contrived to escape from the city, and with the aid of the Lombards deposed the usurper. They were also able to overthrow the monk Philip, whom some of their Lombard allies had clandestinely elected pope. By their efforts Stephen [...] was at length canonically elected and consecrated (7 August, 768). [...] Through Stephen's support the archdeacon Leo was enabled to hold the See of Ravenna against a lay intruder, and in turn through the support of the brothers Charlemagne and Carloman, Kings of the Franks, Stephen was able to recover some territories from the Lombards. But their king, Desiderius [...] brought about a marriage between his daughter and Charlemagne, and in some mysterious manner effected the fall of the pope's chief ministers, Christopher and Sergius."[50]
None Adrian I August 1, 767 to December 26, 795 C.f. Desiderius
"Pavia fell into the hands of Charles; the kingdom of the Lombards was extinguished, and the Papacy was forever delivered from its persistent and hereditary foe."[51]
[edit]Kings of the Franks/Holy Roman Empire
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Charlemagne* Leo III December 26, 795 to June 12, 816 "Pope Adrian died in 795 and Leo III was chosen to fill his place. This election Charlemagne confirmed, sending Angilbert, Abbot of St. Regnier, to Rome to carry to the new Pope admonitions about the proper filling of his office."[52]
"He was elected on the very day his predecessor was buried (26 Dec., 795), and consecrated on the following day. It is quite possible that this haste may have been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to anticipate any interference of the Franks with their freedom of election."[53]
Louis the Pious* Stephen IV June 12, 816 to January 24, 817 "[...] he was elected pope and consecrated immediately after Leo's death, about 22 June, 816. He at once caused the Romans to take an oath to the Emperor Louis the Pious as their suzerain, and he sent notice of his election to him. He then went to France and crowned Louis."[54]
Paschal I January 25, 817 to February 11, 824 "On the death of Stephen IV (24 January, 817) Paschal was unanimously chosen as his successor. On the following day he was consecrated and enthroned. He entered into relations with Emperor Louis, sending him several ambassadors in rapid succession. In 817 he received from the emperor a document, "Pactum Ludovicianum", confirming the rights and possessions of the Holy See. This document with later amendments is still extant [...]"[55]
Eugene II May 8, 824 to August 827 "[...] Pascal I [...] had turned for support to the Frankish power. [...] nobles [...] secured the consecration of Eugene [...] The election of Eugene II was a triumph for the Franks [...] Emperor Louis the Pious accordingly sent his son Lothair to Rome to strengthen the Frankish influence. [...] A concordat or constitution was then agreed upon between the pope and the emperor (824). [...] By command of the pope and Lothair the people had to swear that, saving the fidelity they had promised the pope, they would obey the Emperors Louis and Lothair; [...] and would not suffer the pope-elect to be consecrated save in the presence of the emperor's envoys."[56]
Gregory IV 827 to January 844 "This man [...] was raised to the chair of Peter [...] mainly by the instrumentality of the secular nobility of Rome who were then securing a preponderating influence in papal elections. But the representatives in Rome of the Emperor Louis the Pious would not allow him to be consecrated until his election had been approved by their master. This interference caused such delay that it was not, seemingly, till about March, 828, that he began to govern the Church."[57]
None Sergius II January 844 to January 7, 847 "As Sergius was, after a disputed election, consecrated without any reference to the Emperor Lothaire, the latter was indignant, and sent his son Louis with an army to examine into the validity of the election. But Sergius succeeded in pacifying Louis, whom he crowned king, but to whom he would not take an oath of fealty."[58]
None Leo IV January 847 to July 17, 855 "[...] he was consecrated (10 April, 847) without the consent of the emperor."[59]
None* Benedict III 855 to April 7, 858 "On the death of Leo IV (17 July, 855) Benedict was chosen to succeed him, and envoys were despatched to secure the ratification of the decree of election by the Emperors Lothaire and Louis II. But the legates betrayed their trust and allowed themselves to be influenced in favour of the ambitious and excommunicated Cardinal Anastasius. The imperial missi, gained over in turn by them, endeavoured to force Anastasius on the Roman Church."[60]
Louis II of Italy Nicholas I April 24, 858 to November 13, 867 [61]
"In 858 Louis had come to Rome for the Easter celebrations; he had already begun his return journey, when he was greeted with the news of Pope Benedict's demise (17 April). He immediately went back to Rome, and by his influence decided the election of the deacon Nicholas. The clergy were in favour of another candidate, but as the emperor's choice had fallen on a man of worth, the election was confirmed without much ado."[62]
"After Benedict's death (7 April, 858) the Emperor Louis II, who was in the neighbourhood of Rome, came into the city to exert his influence upon the election. On 24 April Nicholas was elected pope, and on the same day was consecrated and enthroned in St. Peter's in the presence of the emperor."[63]
Unknown Adrian II December 14, 867 to December 14, 872 "He strove to maintain peace among the greedy and incompetent descendants of Charlemagne."[64]
None* Marinus I December 16, 882 to May 15, 884 "There is reason for believing that Marinus I was elected on the very day of the death of John VIII (16 Dec., 882), and that he was consecrated without waiting for the consent of the incompetent emperor, Charles the Fat."[65]
None Stephen V 885 to September 14, 891 "He was consecrated in September, 885, without waiting for the imperial confirmation; but when Charles the Fat found with what unanimity he had been elected he let the matter rest."[66]
Lambert II of Spoleto* Romanus August 897 to November 897 "His coins bear the name of the Emperor Lambert, and his own monogram with 'Scs. Petrus'"[67]
John IX January 898 to January 900 "At this period factions filled the city of Rome, and one of them tried to force their candidate, Sergius, afterwards Sergius III, on the papal throne in opposition to John. Perhaps because he was favoured by the ducal House of Spoleto, John was able to maintain his position, and Sergius was driven from the city and excommunicated. [...] The Synod of Rome [...] decided that the pope-elect was not to be consecrated except in the presence of the imperial envoys."[68]
Unknown Leo V July 903 to September 903 "Very little is known of him. We have no certainty either as to when he was elected or as to exactly how long he reigned."[69]
[edit]Counts of Tusculum
Main article: Pornocracy
[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Marozia, matron of the Theophylacts Sergius III January 29, 904 to April 14, 911 Mistress of Marozia[2]
John X March 914 to May 928 Appointed and then deposed by Marozia[2]
Leo VI May 928 to December 928 [2]
Stephen VII December 928 to February 931 [2]
John XI February/March 931 to December 935 Illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III and Marozia, and half-brother of Alberic II[70]
Alberic II of Spoleto Leo VII 3 January 936 to 13 July 939 Cooperated with Henry I and Otto I[71]
Marinus II October 30, 942 to May 946 "[...] he was one of the popes placed on the throne of St. Peter by the power of Alberic, Prince of the Romans [...]"[72]
Agapetus II May 10, 946 to December 955 "The temporal power had practically vanished and Rome was ruled by the vigorous Princeps and Senator Albericht, who was the prototype of the later Italian tyrants."[73]
John XII December 16, 955 to May 14, 964 Son of Alberic II[73][74]
"During his lifetime, his successor was virtually appointed in the person of Albericht's notorious son Octavian, later John XII, whose father forced the Romans to swear that they would elect him as their temporal and spiritual lord upon the demise of Agapetus."[73]
[edit]Holy Roman Empire
"Soon after the German Emperors were seated on the throne, the political subjection of the Pope is, as a matter of history, unquestionable. [...] For a time this doctrine was a formidable instrument in the hands of the Emperor. The great Protector of the Church, in the exercise of his office, watched over the interests of the Roman See, convened general councils, and claimed the tremendous prerogative of nominating, or at least confirming, the Pope. Such a prerogative was exercised from the times of Otho the Great to that of Henry IV. Henry III deposed three schismatical Popes, and nominated more than one German Pope."
Robert Phillimore, 1855[75]


[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
None* Benedict V May 22, 964 to June 23, 964 "Benedict V was elected pope (May, 964) in very critical circumstances. The powerful emperor, Otho I, had forcibly deposed [...] John XII, and had replaced him by a nominee of his own who took the title of Leo VIII. But [...] the Romans expelled Leo, and on the death (14 May, 964) of [...] John XII, elected [...] Benedict [...] Otho [...] marched on Rome, seized Benedict, and put an end to his pontificate [...] After reinstating Leo, Otho left Rome and carried Benedict with him to Germany."[76]
Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor Leo VIII July 964 to March 1, 965 Sometimes considered an antipope for the first year of his papacy[77][78]
John XIII October 1, 965 to September 6, 972 Brother of Crescentius the Elder
"In presence of the imperial envoys, Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, and Otgar, Bishop of Speyer, the emperor's candidate, John, Bishop of Narni, was elected pope, and crowned on 1 October, 965, as John XIII."[79]
Benedict VI January 19, 973 to June 974 Deposed and strangled by Crescentius the Elder
"[...] the necessity of waiting for the ratification of the Emperor Otho delayed his consecration till 19 January, 973."[80]
Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor Benedict VII October 974 to July 10, 983 Elected by the Roman clergy through the influence of Siccio, envoy of Otto II
Related to Alberic II of Spoleto, the Count of Tusculum and the Crescentii
John XIV December 983 to August 20, 984 "After the death of Benedict VII, Bishop Peter Campanora of Pavia, earlier imperial chancellor of Italy, was elected pope with the consent of Emperor Otto II [...]"[81]
Unknown; existence is disputed John XV August 985 to March 996 Crescentius the Younger as Patricius Romanorum likely interfered in the succession of John XV, if, in fact, it occurred
"John remained throughout his pontificate under the influence of the powerful patricius, though he maintained friendly relations with the German court and with both empresses-Adelaide, widow of Otto I, and Theophano, widow of Otto II."[82]
Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor Gregory V 996 to 999 Cousin of Otto III; Crescentius the Younger and the Roman clergy did not choose a successor to John XV immediately, but rather deferred to Otto III to select one.[83]
Sylvester II April 2, 999 to May 12, 1003 [84]
[edit]Crescentii
Main article: Crescentii
Crescentius the Elder, the brother of Pope John XIII, had previously deposed and had strangled Pope Benedict VI, and helped install Antipope Boniface VII in Rome in opposition to the imperial candidates, Pope Benedict VII and Pope John XIV, the latter of which perished in the Castel Sant'Angelo like Benedict V. Crescentius the Younger, the son of Crescentius the Elder, likely had a strong hand in the election of Pope John XV, although the details of that papacy are incomplete and disputed. However, it is known that Crescentius the Younger deferred to Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor for the choice of the successor of John XV: Pope Gregory V, Otto III's cousin. Yet, not long afterward, disputes with the emperor and Gregory V caused Crescentius the Younger to support Antipope John XVI, who was deposed with some difficulty by Otto III, who proceeded to have John XVI mutilated and Crescentius the Younger killed.

Three years later, after a revolt in Rome involving John Crescentius, the son of Crescentius the Younger, Otto III and Pope Sylvester II were expelled from Rome; the three successors of Sylvester II (who was later permitted to return to Rome) were appointed by John Crescentius before he died in the spring of 1012, nearly simultaneously with Sergius IV, allowing the Counts of Tusculum to displace the Crescentii.

[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
John Crescentius John XVII June 1003 to December 1003 Began in opposition to Gregory V[1][85]
John XVIII December 25, 1003 to July 1009 "He, too, owed his elevation to the influence of Crescentius."[86]
Sergius IV July 31, 1009 to May 12, 1012 [1]
[edit]Counts of Tusculum
Main article: Counts of Tusculum
Unlike the Tusculan popes during the "Pornocracy", Benedict VIII, John XIX, and Benedict IX were the Count of Tusculum themselves immediately prior to their becoming pope. Benedict VIII subjugated the Crescentii and made peace with the Holy Roman Empire, crowning Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor on February 14, 1014, nearly two years after his accession to the papacy.

"After the death of the last patricius of the House of Crescentius, the counts of Tusculum seized the authority in Rome, a scion of this family was raised to the papal throne as Benedict VIII, while his brother, Romanus, exercised the temporal power in the city as consul and senator. After Benedict's death Romanus, though a layman, was elected pope between 12 April and 10 May 1024, immediately after which he received all the orders in succession, took the name of John, and sought by lavish expenditure to win the Romans to his cause."
J.P. Kirsch, 1913[87]


[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Counts of Tusculum Benedict VIII May 18, 1012 to April 9, 1024 Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope[1]
"[...] though a layman, imposed on the chair of Peter by force (18 May 1012)"[88]
John XIX April/May 1024 to October 20, 1032 Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope; brother of Benedict VIII[1]
Benedict IX 1032 to 1044 Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope; nephew of his two immediate predecessors as the son of their brother, Alberic III, Count of Tusculum
"Regarding it as a sort of heirloom, his father Alberic placed him upon [the Chair of Peter] when a mere youth, not, however, apparently of only twelve years of age [...]"[89]
First term; abdicated twice for financial reward (c.f. Pope Sylvester III and Pope Gregory VI)[1]
[edit]Holy Roman Empire
"In the autumn of 1046 the King of Germany, Henry III, crossed the Alps at the head of a large army and accompanied by a brilliant retinue of the secular and ecclesiastical princes of the empire, for the twofold purpose of receiving the imperial crown and of restoring order in the Italian Peninsula. The condition of Rome in particular was deplorable. In St. Peter's, the Lateran, and St. Mary Major's, sat three rival claimants to the papacy. [...] Two of them, Benedict IX and Sylvester III, represented rival factions of the Roman nobility [...] Gregory VI, was peculiar. [...] It was decided that he should summon a synod to meet at Sutri near Rome, at which the entire question should be ventilated. [...] Of the three papal claimants, Benedict refused to appear; he was again summoned and afterwards pronounced deposed at Rome. Sylvester was "stripped of his sacerdotal rank and shut up in a monastery". Gregory [...] deposed himself [...] the papal chair was declared vacant. As King Henry was not yet crowned emperor, he had no canonical right to take part in the new election; but the Romans had no candidate to propose and begged the monarch to suggest a worthy subject.

[...] Short-sighted reformers [...] who saw in this surrender of the freedom of papal elections to the arbitrary will of the emperor the opening of a new era, lived long enough to regret the mistake that was made."
James F. Loughlin, 1913[90]


[hide]Appointer Pope Pontificate Notes
Henry III Clement II December 25, 1046 to October 9, 1047 Proceeded to crown Henry III; first "German Pope"[91]
Damasus II July 17, 1048 to August 9, 1048 With the concurrence of Boniface III of Tuscany[92][93]
Leo IX February 12, 1048 to April 19, 1054 Selected by the emperor at an assembly in Worms with the concurrence of Roman nobles, with the subsequent assent of the Roman clergy;[92] Cousin of the emperor;[94] brought Hildebrand (future Pope Gregory VII) to Rome with him.[95]
Victor II April 13, 1055 to July 28, 1057 "After the death of Leo IX (19 April 1054) Cardinal-subdeacon Hildebrand came to the emperor at the head of a Roman legation with the urgent request to designate Gebhard as pope. At the Diet of Mainz, in September, 1054, the emperor granted this request, but Gebhard refused to accept the papal dignity. At a court Diet held at Ratisbon in March, 1055, he finally accepted the papacy, but only on condition that the emperor restored to the Apostolic See all the possessions that had been taken from it. The emperor consented to this condition and Gebhard accompanied Hildebrand to Rome, where he was formally elected and solemnly enthroned on Maundy Thrusday [sic], 13 April 1055, taking the name of Victor II."[96]
None Stephen IX August 2, 1057 to March 29, 1058 "He was made cardinal-priest of St. Chrysogonus by Victor II, and, on the latter's death, he was freely chosen his successor, and consecrated on the following day (3 August 1057)."[97]
None Nicholas II December 6, 1058 to July 27, 1061 Promulgated In Nomine Domini (1059)
"As soon as the news of the death of Stephen X at Florence reached Rome (4 April 1058). the Tusculan party appointed a successor in the person of John Mincius, Bishop of Velletri, under the name of Benedict X. His elevation, due to violence and corruption, was contrary to the specific orders of Stephen X that, at his death, no choice of a successor was to be made until Hildebrand's return from Germany. Several cardinals protested against the irregular proceedings, but they were compelled to flee from Rome. Hildebrand was returning from his mission when the news of these events reached him. He interrupted his journey at Florence, and after agreeing with Duke Godfrey of Lorraine-Tuscany upon Bishop Gerhard for elevation to the papacy, he won over part of the Roman population to the support of his candidate. An embassy dispatched to the imperial court secured the confirmation of the choice by the Empress Agnes. At Hildebrand's invitation, the cardinals met in December, 1058, at Siena and elected Gerhard who assumed the name of Nicholas II. On his way to Rome the new pope held at Sutri a well-attended synod at which, in the presence of Duke Godfrey and the imperial chancellor, Guibert of Parma, he pronounced deposition against Benedict X."[98]
Burchard II, Bishop of Halberstadt* Alexander II September 30, 1061 to April 21, 1073 "Alexander's election was confirmed by an envoy"[99]
Henry IV* Gregory VII April 22, 1073 to May 25, 1085 "Last pope whose election was confirmed by the Emperor"[100]
Lothair III*[101] Innocent II February 14, 1130 to September 24, 1143 "[...] the election of Innocent was ratified at a synod assembled at Würzburg at the request of the German king [...]"[102]
Further information: Papal election, 1061
[edit]List of anti-papal appointments

[hide]Secular power Antipope Pontificate Notes
Constantius Felix II 355 to 358 Opposed to Pope Liberius[103]
Exarchate of Ravenna Theodore 687 "While Pope Conon lay dying, the archdeacon Pascal offered the exarch a large sum to bring about his election as his successor. Through the exarch's influence the archdeacon was accordingly elected by a number of people; about the same time another faction elected the archpriest Theodore. The mass of clergy and people, however, set them both aside and chose Sergius, who was duly consecrated."[44]
Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine Clement III 1080 to 1100 Bishop of Ravenna at the time Rome was captured from the Countess Matilda of Tuscany[104]
Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor Gregory VIII March 10, 1118 to April 22, 1121 [105]
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor Nicholas V May 12, 1328 to July 25, 1330 Opposed to Pope John XXII[106]
[edit]Notes

^ a b c d e f Christian Chronicler. "The Medieval Papacy".
^ a b c d e Greeley, 2005, p. 20.
^ Brauer, Jerald C., and Gerrish, Brian Albert. 1971. The Westminster Dictionary of Church History. Westminster Press. ISBN 0-664-21285-9. p. 216.
^ Karl August von Hase, Karl von Hase, Charles Edward Blumenthal, Conway Phelps Wing. 1870. A History of the Christian Church. D. Appleton and company. p. 184.
^ a b Josep M. Colomer and Iain McLean. (1998). "Electing Popes: Approval Balloting and Qualified-Majority Rule". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 1-22.
^ Bennett, Clinton. 2001. In Search of Jesus: Insider and Outsider Images. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-4916-6. p. 78.
^  "Pope St. Fabian" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Cornelius" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Lucius I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Damasus I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Siricius" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ ouis Marie DeCormenin, vicomte de Louis-Marie de Lahaye. 1857. A Complete History of the Popes of Rome. James L. Gihon. p. 78.
^  "Pope St. Boniface I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Simplicius" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Gelasius I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Symmachus (498-514)" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ DeCormenin and de Lahaye, 1857, p. 98.
^ Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 1842. Penny cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. C. Knight. p. 320.
^ Holland, David. 1989. The Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Incorporated. ISBN 0-7172-0120-1. p. 87.
^ Coulombe, 2003, p. 96.
^  "Pope John II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Evans, James Allan Stewart. 2002. The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72105-6. p. 65.
^ a b Coulombe, 2003, p. 99.
^ William Francis Barry. 1902. The Papal Monarchy from St. Gregory the Great to Boniface VIII. T.F. Unwin. p. 73.
^ Coulombe, 2003, p. 101.
^ Baynes, Thomas Spencer. 1888. "Pelagius I". The Encyclopaedia Britannica. H. G. Allen. p. 473.
^ Sotinel, Claire. 2003. "John III" in Levillain. p. 833.
^  "Pope Benedict I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pelagius II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Gregory I ("the Great")" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Sabinianus" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Boniface III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Boniface IV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Severinus" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John IV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Theodore I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Martin I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Andreas Nikolaou Stratos, Marc Ogilvie-Grant. 1968. Byzantium in the Seventh Century. Adolf M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0852-3. p. 55.
^  "Pope St. Vitalian" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Leo II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Benedict II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John V" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Conon" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ a b  "Pope St. Sergius I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John VI" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Gregory III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope St. Zachary" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Stephen (II) III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Paul I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Stephen (III) IV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Adrian I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Landone, Brown. 1917. Civilization: An Appreciation of the Victories of Scholarship, Science and Art. I. Squire. p. 102.
^  "Pope Leo III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Stephen (IV) V" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Paschal I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Eugene II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Gregory IV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Sergius II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Leo IV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Benedict III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Hill, 1905, p. 161.
^ Duchesne, Louis. 1907. The Beginnings of the Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes: A. D. 754-1073. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & co., ltd. p. 155.
^  "Pope St. Nicholas I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Adrian II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Marinus I" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Stephen (V) VI" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Romanus" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John IX" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Leo V" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Graboïs, 1980, p. 448.
^ Dahmus, 1984, p. 432.
^  "Pope Marinus II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ a b c  "Pope Agapetus II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Phillimore, Robert. 1855. Commentaries Upon International Law. T. & J. W. Johnson. p. 201.
^  "Pope Benedict V" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Newman, Albert Henry. A Manual of Church History. American Baptist publication society. p. 501.
^ Bryce Johnston, John Johnstone. 1807. A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John. Printed for William Creech. p. 136.
^  "Pope John XIII" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Benedict VI" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John XIV" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John XV (XVI)" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Graboïs, 1980, p. 372.
^ André Maurel, Helen Gerard. 1913. Little Cities of Italy. G. P. Putnam's sons. p. 398.
^ Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Penny cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. p. 129.
^  "Pope John XVIII (XIX)" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope John XIX (XX)" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Benedict VIII" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Benedict IX" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Clement II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Graboïs, 1980, p. 214.
^ a b The Historians' History of the World. p. 608.
^ Doran, John. Monarchs Retired from Business. Redfield. p. 104.
^ Hill, 1905, p. 204.
^ Kuiper, B. K. 1988. The Church in History. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-1777-7. p. 100.
^  "Pope Victor II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Stephen (IX) X" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^  "Pope Nicholas II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ A Manual of Church History. 1939. B. Herder. p. 264.
^ Chetham Society. 1865. Remains historical and literary connected with the Palatine counties. Oxford University. p. 279.
^ Watkin Wynn Williams. 1953. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. Manchester University Press. p. 109.
^  "Pope Innocent II" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Coulombe, 2003, p. 71.
^ Victor Duruy, Louis Edwin Van Norman. 1912. A General History of the World. The Review of Reviews Co. p. 231.
^ J. Willoughby Rosse, John Blair. 1858. An Index of Dates. H. G. Bohn. p. 108.
^ Dahmus, 1984, p. 581.
[edit]References

Coulombe, Charles A. 2003. Vicars of Christ: A History of the Popes. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2370-0.
Dahmus, Joseph Henry. 1984. Dictionary of medieval civilization. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-907870-9.
Graboïs, Aryeh. 1980. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Medieval Civilization. Octopus.
Greeley, Andrew M. 2005. The Making of the Pope. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-32560-0.
Hill, David Jayne. 1905. A history of diplomacy in the international development of Europe. Longmans, Green, and co.